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THE  INTELLIGENCE  OF 
SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

HOW  CHILDREN  DIFFER  IN  ABILITY 

THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  IN  SCHOOL  GRADING 

AND  THE  PROPER  EDUCATION  OF 

EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  - 

J 

BY 

LEWIS  M.  TERMAN 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION 
LELAND  STANFORD  JUNIOR  UNIVERSITY 


-J 


-J 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY  -j 

BOSTON          NEW  YORK        CHICAGO 

ttilietsi&E  pre^tf  Cambri&0e 

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COPYRIGHT,    1919,  BY   LEWIS  M.  TERM  AN 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


MAIN  LIBRARY 


VI 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U  .   S  .  A 


TO  MY  GRADUATE  STUDENTS 
1916-1917  AND  1917-1918 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

THREE  years  ago  the  author  of  the  present  volume 
published,  in  this  series,  The  Measurement  of  Intelli- 
gence. This  represented  a  number  of  years  of  care- 
ful scientific  work,  on  the  part  of  himself  and  his  stu- 
dents, in  testing  out  and  adapting  to  American  needs 
and  conditions  the  very  important  foundation  work 
of  the  French  scholar  Binet.  It  was  predicted  at  the 
time  that  the  volume  would  prove  of  fundamental 
importance  in  pointing  the  way  to  more  intelligent 
school  room  procedure,  and  that  in  time  the  mental 
measurement  of  all  children  not  making  satisfactory 
educational  progress  would  become  a  matter  of  rou- 
tine in  the  administration  of  a  school. 

The  reception  given  to  the  volume,  not  only  in  this 
country  but  in  Canada  and  England  as  well,  has  ex- 
ceeded expectations.  With  the  entry  of  the  United 
States  into  the  World  War,  and  the  application  of 
intelligence  testing  to  our  army  recruits  as  a  means  of 
grading  capacity  and  sorting  them  for  the  serious  busi- 
ness of  war,  an  entirely  new  impetus  has  been  given  to 
intelligence  measurements.  As  a  result  of  the  work 
done  in  the  army,  as  much  progress  has  been  made 
during  the  past  three  years  in  the  use  of  intelligence 
tests  as  ordinarily  might  have  been  expected  in  a 
decade. 


viii  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

In  consequence,  the  large  usefulness  of  intelligence 
testing  has  been  thoroughly  demonstrated,  and  as  a 
result  the  near  future  is  almost  certain  to  see  the 
method  applied  somewhat  generally  in  schoolroom 
practice  to  determine  mental  capacity  and  effect 
proper  grade  classification.  Intelligence  testing  is  also 
certain  to  play  an  important  part  in  educational  and 
vocational  guidance.  The  question  now  is  not,  Are 
intelligence  tests  of  value?  but,  How  may  teachers  and 
principals  be  made  masters  of  their  use?  To  those 
responsible  for  the  administration  of  both  public  and 
private  education  the  question  has  become,  What 
modifications  of  educational  procedure  will  be  neces- 
sary in  consequence  of  the  new  light  on  mental  devel- 
opment and  school  work  which  intelligence  measure- 
ments have  revealed?  The  questions  of  promotions, 
proper  grading,  types  of  courses  of  study,  the  skipping 
of  grades,  over-age  children,  juvenile  delinquency, 
vocational  guidance,  special  classes,  and  the  proper 
education  of  gifted  and  sub-normal  children  have  all 
acquired  an  entirely  new  meaning  in  the  light  of  the 
results  which  the  measurement  of  intelligence  has 
already  produced. 

In  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  the  author  reduced 
the  tests  and  the  procedure  for  giving  them  to  simple 
language,  so  that  from  a  study  of  the  book  any  careful 
student  could  be  trained  to  give  them.  In  the  present 
volume  he  has  done  an  even  more  significant  thing, 
viewed  either  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher  in 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION  ix 

our  schools  or  from  that  of  the  principal  or  superintend- 
ent responsible,  for  their  administration.  In  this  book 
he  has  set  forth  —  in  equally  simple  language,  backed 
up  by  the  results  of  a  number  of  concrete  studies,  and 
illustrated  by  curves,  tables,  and  descriptions  of  many 
individual  pupils  who  have  been  tested  and  studied  — 
the  educational  significance  of  intelligence,  the  great 
differences  in  the  intelligence  of  school  children,  and 
what  may  be  expected  from  and  what  ought  to  be  done 
for  pupils  of  different  degrees  of  intellectual  capacity. 

The  book  has  been  written  primarily  for  the  grade 
teacher,  and  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  The 
Measurement  of  Intelligence.  Its  greatest  usefulness 
probably  will  be  as  a  book  for  Teacher  Study  Clubs 
and  State  Reading  Circles,  and  as  an  introductory 
textbook  for  students  in  normal  schools.  A  careful 
study  of  this  book  by  the  teachers  of  a  city  or  State 
would  contribute  wonderfully  to  the  intelligent  han- 
dling of  children,  and  the  study  of  it  by  prospective 
teachers  would  open  up  entirely  new  conceptions  as  to 
educational  procedure,  and  would  lead  to  a  far  more 
satisfactory  direction  of  the  exceptional  children  found 
in  every  school.  The  book  will  also  prove  of  much 
value  to  parents  interested  in  the  education  of  their 
children,  and  especially  to  those  whose  children  vary 
much  in  either  direction  from  the  normal. 

While  written  primarily  for  the  teacher  in  service  and 
for  parents  interested  in  the  mental  development  of 
their  children,  the  book  ought  also  to  prove  illuminat- 


x  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

ing  to  principals  and  superintendents  of  schools  gen- 
erally, by  way  of  suggesting  to  them  more  intelligent 
educational  procedure  in  the  classification  and  promo- 
tion of  children  and  the  administration  of  courses  of 
study. 

ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBEBLEY 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  has  been  written  for  the  rank  and  file  of 
teachers,  school  supervisors,  and  normal-school  stu- 
dents. Its  purpose  is  to  illustrate  the  large  individual 
endowment  which  exist  among 


school  children  and  to  show  the  practical  bearingjrf 
these  differences  injo^thejyeryday  problems  of  class- 
rpom-inanagenient  and^chooladministration.  It  does 
not  treat,  except  incidentally,  the  psychological  prin- 
ciples underlying  intelligence  tests.  Some  of  these 
problems  the  writer  has  touched  upon  elsewhere.1 
The  technique  of  giving  the  tests  of  the  revised  Binet 
scale  and  the  general  significance  of  mental  tests  for 
education  have  been  set  forth  in  some  detail  in  another 
volume  of  this  series,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence* 
which  should  be  read  in  connection  with  the  present 
volume. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  the  writer  has 
drawn  heavily  upon  the  data  from  investigations  made 
by  a  number  of  his  students  at  Stanford  University. 
His  debt  to  them  is  very  great,  not  only  for  the  gener- 
ous way  in  which  they  have  placed  valuable  data  at 
his  disposal,  but  if  possible  even  more  for  the  loyalty 

1  See  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  The  Stanford  Revision  and  Extension  of 
the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence.  Warwick  and  York, 
Baltimore,  1917;  pp.  179. 

2  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1916;  pp.  362. 


xii  PREFACE 

and  enthusiasm  with  which  they  have  worked  to- 
gether in  carrying  through  cooperative  undertakings 
of  the  most  laborious  nature.    What  a  single  individual 
working  alone  can  accomplish  in  research  with  mental 
tests  is  well-nigh  infinitesimal.     Substantial  progress 
can  come  only  from  the  cooperative  work  of  many 
on  closely  allied  problems.      This  volume  is  in  large 
measure  the  outcome  of  studies  made  by  various  mem- 
bers of  the  author's  classes  in  intelligence  tests  during 
the  years  1916-17  and  1917-18,  the  central  topic  for 
each  year  being  the  relation  of  school  success  to  intel- 
ligence.    Students  who  have  contributed  important 
data  to  the  various  chapters  include  the  following: 
Virgil  E.  Dickson  (tests  of  first-grade  pupils); 
W.  M.  Proctor  (tests  of  high-school  pupils) ; 
Irene  Cuneo  (tests  of  kindergarten  children) ; 
Margaret   Hopwood   Hubbard    (tests   of  superior 

children) ; 

O.  S.  Hubbard  (tests  of  fifth-grade  pupils); 
Isabel  Preston  (analysis  of  discrepancies  between 

mental  age  and  school  success) ; 
J.  K.  Flanders  (tests  of  Express  Company  employ- 
ees); 
H.  E.  Knollin  (tests  of  unemployed,  prisoners,  and 

business  men) ; 

Dr.  J.  Harold  Williams   (tests  of  juvenile  delin- 
quents) ; 

Lowery  Howard  and  Virgil  Dickson  (tests  of  re- 
tarded children  in  the  schools  of  "X"  County); 


PREFACE  xiii 

Various  students  who  cooperated  in  gathering  the 
data  on  which  the  Stanford  Revision  of  the  Binet 
scale  was  based.     Among  these  were  Dr.  George 
Ordahl,  Dr.  Louise  Ellison  Ordahl,  Grace  Lyman, 
Neva  Galbreath,  and  Wilford  Talbert. 
These  studies  are  but  parts  of  a  larger  investigation 
of  mental  growth  and  individual  differences.     Several 
of  them  are  far  from  complete  at  the  time  of  this  writ- 
ing.    Hundreds  of  children  who  have  been  tested  in 
the  vicinity  of  Stanford  University  are  being  followed 
up  in  order  to  discover  the  value  of  mental  tests  as  a 
means  of  forecasting  the  educational  achievements 
possible  to  children  of  various  degrees  of  intelligencet 
The  investigation  also  involves  the  re-testing  of  a  large 
number  of  children  hi  successive  or  alternate  years  in 
order  that  typical  curves  of  mental  growth  may  be 
established.     The  writer  believes  that  studies  of  this 
kind  should  entirely  replace  the  controversial  litera- 
ture on  the  value  of  Binet  and  other  mental  tests. 
There  is  no  other  foundation  for  science,  whether  pure 
or  applied,  than  positive,  definitely  verifiable  facts. 
Psychology  is  no  exception. 

Another  study  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connec- 
tion, although  circumstances  prevent  the  publication 
of  its  results  at  present.  With  the  assistance  of  a 
number  of  Stanford  University  students,  the  group 
intelligence  scale  devised  for  use  in  the  United  States 
Army  was  given  during  the  school  year  of  1917-18 
to  approximately  six  thousand  pupils  from  the  third 


xiv  PREFACE 

grade  to  the  senior  year  of  high  school.  The  purpose 
of  the  investigation  was  to  secure  data  on  the  reli- 
ability of  the  army  tests,  and  to  this  end  a  large 
amount  of  supplementary  information  regarding  each 
pupil  was  secured  for  correlation  with  the  tests  re- 
sults. This  information  included  age,  grade,  years  in 
school,  nationality  of  parents,  occupation  of  father, 
teachers'  ratings  of  the  children  on  intelligence,  qual- 
ity of  school  work,  and  several  character  traits.  Ap- 
proximately six  hundred  of  the  same  pupils  had  been 
tested  with  the  Stanford  Revision  of  the  Binet  scale. 
In  every  respect  the  results  of  this  investigation  sup- 
port the  data  and  conclusions  presented  in  the  vari- 
ous chapters  of  this  volume.  The  army  tests,  which 
were  given  to  approximately  1,700,000  soldiers,  demon- 
strated beyond  question  that  the  methods  of  mental 
measurement  are  capable  of  making  a  contribution  of 
great  value  to  military  efficiency.  That  their  univer- 
sal use  in  the  schoolroom  is  necessary  to  educational 
efficiency  will  doubtless  soon  be  accepted  as  a  matter 
of  course. 

The  fact  that  the  conclusions  here  offered  are  based 
chiefly  upon  results  secured  by  the  use  of  the  Stanford 
Revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  tests  must  not  be  under- 
stood to  imply  that  the  writer  looks  with  disfavor  upon 
other  intelligence  scales.  To  the  extent  that  the  con- 
clusions are  valid  at  all,  they  can  be  confirmed  by  any 
system  of  tests  which  affords  a  reasonably  accurate 
measure  of  general  mental  ability.  However,  it  is  not 


PREFACE 


xv 


the  purpose  of  this  volume  to  summarize  the  hundreds 
of  interesting  and  valuable  investigations  which  have 
utilized  either  Binet  or  other  tests  of  school  children. 
For  the  most  part  such  investigations  have  been  di- 
rected toward  the  improvements  of  methods.  The 
writer's  present  aim  is  the  more  practical  one  of  show- 
ing how  the  results  of  mental  tests  may  be  put  to 
everyday  use  in  the  grade  classification  and  in  the 
educational  guidance  of  school  children. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Professor  R.  M.  Yerkes 
for  reading  several  chapters  of  the  manuscript  and 
for  many  helpful  criticisms. 

STANFORD  UNIVERSITY 
March  1,  1919 


CONTENTS 

I.  SOME  PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING      .      .      1 

The  Binet  tests,  a  method  of  assaying  intelligence  — 
Why  a  mental  test  is  significant  —  The  meaning  of  mental 
age  —  Mental  age  a  basis  for  school  grading  —  The  intel- 
ligence quotient  —  The  I  Q  as  a  basis  for  prediction  — 
Effect  of  environment  on  the  I Q — Scales  for  group  testing. 

n.  AMOUNT  AND  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFER- 
ENCES        17 

Individual  differences  exist  for  all  traits  —  The  causes 
of  individual  differences  in  school  progress  —  Overlapping 
of  mental  ages  in  the  different  grades  —  The  tendency  to 
promote  by  age. 

HI.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  KINDERGARTEN 

CHILDREN 30 

Range  in  mental  age  —  Distribution  of  I  Q's  —  Sex  dif- 
ferences —  Significance  of  the  tests  —  Special  need  of 
tests  in  the  kindergarten  —  The  kindergarten's  demands 
upon  intelligence. 

IV.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FIRST  GRADE     .    42 

The  critical  importance  of  the  first  grade  —  A  model 
study  of  school  grading  —  Mental-age  differences  —  Men- 
tal age  necessary  for  first-grade  work  —  The  influence  of 
age  on  the  ability  to  do  school  work  —  The  distribution  of 
I  Q's  —  How  the  five  classes  differed  —  Sex  differences  — 
Racial  and  social  differences  —  Correlation  between  intel- 
ligence and  other  traits  —  Predictions  regarding  school 
progress  —  The  retarded  group  —  Feasibility  of  testing 
all  first-grade  children. 

V.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FIFTH  GRADE       .    66 

Extent  of  the  differences  —  The  two  classes  contrasted 
—  Necessity  of  an  absolute  standard  of  comparison — The 


xviii  CONTENTS 

intelligence  tests  confirmed  by  other  data  —  Retardation 
and  acceleration. 

VI.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FIRST  YEAR  OF 

HIGH  SCHOOL 75 

Age  differences  —  Mental  age  differences  —  Mental  age 
and  school  marks  —  I  Q  and  chronological  age  —  I  Q 
and  school  work  —  I  Q  and  teachers'  estimates  of  in- 
telligence —  The  relation  of  intelligence  to  elimination  — 
Other  evidence  that  elimination  is  selective  —  Are  high- 
school  standards  too  high? 

VII.  THE  MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING  .      .    92 

Normal  mental  age  for  the  different  grades  —  Sources  of 
error  in  judging  school  success  —  Discrepancies  between 
mental  age  and  school  performance  —  Effect  of  unusual 
application  —  Effect  of  child's  personality  on  the  teacher's 
ratings  —  Effect  of  timidity  and  lack  of  self-confidence  — 
Effect  of  mental  inertia  —  Effects  of  emotional  instability 
or  nervous  tendencies  —  Effect  of  home  "spoiling"  — 
Influence  of  physical  defects  —  Love  affairs  and  day- 
•  dreaming  —  Summary  —  The  case  of  Margaret. 

VHL  MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS     .      .      .111 

The  number  of  over-age  children  —  The  supposed  causes 
of  retardation  —  The  real  cause  of  retardation  —  Feeble- 
minded school  children  —  Grade  progress  of  the_  .feeble- 
minded— Some  exceptionally  difficult  classes — How  many 
children  are  feeble-minded? — Criteria  of  mental  deficiency 
—  Feeble-mindedness  and  dullness  not  curable  —  Grade 
expectancy  of  the  feeble-minded  —  Limitations  of  the 
special  class  —  Vocational  training  for  backward  children. 

IX.  THE  I  Q  AS  A  BASIS  FOR  PREDICTION  .      .      .      .135 

Prediction  the  essence  of  science  —  Limitations  of  pre- 
diction in  psychology  —  Constancy  of  I  Q  as  shown  by  re- 
tests  —  Personal  equation  of  the  examiner  —  Influence  of 
interval  between  tests  —  Influence  of  brightness  and  dull- 
ness on  the  constancy  of  the  I  Q  —  Limits  of  accuracy  in 
prediction  of  mental  development  —  Mechanical  errors 
as  a  source  of  discrepancy  —  Do  adenoids  affect  the  I  Q? 
Curves  of  mental  growth  —  The  1  Q  as  a  basis  for  pre- 
dicting school  progress. 


CONTENTS  xix 

X.  SOME  FACTS  ABOUT  FIFTY-NINE   SUPERIOR  CHIL- 

DREN   165 

Educational  neglect  of  superior  children  —  Selection 
of  subjects  —  Supplementary  data  —  I  Q's  —  Age-grade 
location  —  Teachers'  ratings  on  quality  of  school  work 
—  Educational  measurements  —  Entering  age  and  rate 
of  advancement  —  Age  of  learning  to  read  —  Attitude 
toward  school  work  —  Play  and  recreation  —  Trait  rat- 
ings —  Moral  traits  —  Health  and  physical  traits  —  So- 
cial status  and  heredity  —  Does  the  superiority  tend  to 
disappear?  —  Conclusions. 

XI.  CASE  STUDIES  OF  FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN  194 

Descriptions  of  forty-one  children  of  superior  intel- 
lectual ability  —  Indications  of  superior  endowment  — 
Objections  to  grading  superior  children  by  mental  age  — 
Opportunity  classes  for  superior  children  —  Class  section- 
ing according  to  mental  ability. 

XII.  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS  IN  VOCATIONAL  AND  EDUCA- 

TIONAL GUIDANCE 268 

Educational  and  vocational  guidance  inseparable  — 
Limitations  of  vocational  guidance  —  Firemen  and  police- 
men —  Express  company  employees  —  Street-car  em- 
ployees and  salesgirls  —  Business  men  —  Tests  of  college  -*^^f  7 
students  —  Tests  of  social  and  industrial  failures  —  Edu- 
cational guidance  —  The  conservation  of  talent. 

XIII.  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  USE  OF  MEN- 

TAL TESTS       291 

Teachers  must  learn  to  use  tests  —  Preparation  needed 
for  Binet  testing  —  How  to  learn  the  Binet  procedure 
without  instruction  —  Learning  to  score  —  The  interpre- 
tation and  use  of  results  —  The  use  of  supplementary 
data — The  Providence  example — The  use  of  abbreviated 
tests  —  The  vocabulary  test  as  a  brief  intelligence  scale  — 
Group  tests. 

INDEX  .  315 


LIST  OF  FIGURES 

1.  Individual  differences  among  145  first-grade  chil- 
dren in  sense  of  humor 18 

2.  Individual  differences  among  145  first-grade  chil- 
dren in  cheerfulness 18 

3.  Individual  differences  among  145  first-grade  chil- 
dren in  evenness  of  temper 19 

4.  Individual  differences  among  503  children  in  quality 

of  school  work 19 

5.  Individual  differences  among  392  children  in  ability 

to  give  sustained  attention 20 

6.  Individual  differences  in  height  among  236  boys, 
aged  9|  to  10£  years 22 

7.  Individual  differences  among  1896  ten-year-old  boys 

in  ability  to  win  promotions  in  school        ...    22 

8.  Individual  differences  among  83  unselected  twelve- 
year-old  children  in  I  Q  as  measured  by  the  Stan- 
ford-Binet  Scale 23 

9.  Individual  differences  in  intelligence  among  1458 
children,  Grades  V  to  VIII,  as  shown  by  teachers' 
ratings 23 

10.  Overlapping  in  the  mental  ages  of  children  in  the 
first,  fifth,  and  ninth  grades 25 

11.  Overlapping  of  kindergarten  and  first-grade  children 

in  mental  age 31 

12.  I  Q  distribution  of  112  kindergarten  children   .       .  34 

13.  Mental  age  distribution  of  149  first-grade  children  45 

14.  I  Q  distribution  of  149  first-grade  children        .       .  50 

15.  Typical  "trait  profile"  of  a  very  bright  child  .      .  59 

16.  Typical  "trait  profile"  of  a  child  of  average  intelli- 
gence          59 


xxii  LIST  OF  FIGURES 

17.  Typical  "trait  profile"  of  a  feeble-minded  child      .    59 

18.  Mental-age   distribution    of    137    first-year   high- 
school  pupils 78 

19.  I  Q  distribution  of  first-year  high-school  pupils       .     81 

20.  Mental-growth  curves  as  they  would  be  if  I  Q  were 
constant 152 

21.  Actual  mental-growth  curves  of  children  of  various 
degrees  of  brightness 153 

22.  Mental-growth  curves  of  bright  and  dull  children  .  154 

23.  Mental-growth  curves  in  two  contrasting  families  .  155 

24.  Mental-growth  contrasts  in  the  same  family    .       .  156 

25.  Four  exceptionally  irregular  growth  curves      .      .  157 


THE  INTELLIGENCE  OF 
SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

CHAPTER  I 

SOME  PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING1 

The  Binet  tests,  a  method  of  assaying  intelligence. 
In  order  to  find  out  how  much  gold  is  contained  in  a 
given  vein  of  quartz  it  is  not  necessary  to  uncover  all 
the  ore  and  extract  and  weigh  every  particle  of  the 
precious  metal.  It  is  sufficient  merely  to  ascertain  by 
borings  the  linear  extent  of  the  lode  and  to  take  a 
small  amount  of  the  ore  to  the  laboratory  of  an  assayer, 
who  will  make  a  test  and  render  a  verdict  of  so  many 
ounces  of  gold  per  ton  of  ore. 

A  half -century  ago  Francis  Galton  predicted  that  it 
would  sometime  be  possible  to  obtain  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  the  intellectual  capacities  of  a  man  by  sinking 
shafts,  as  it  were,  at  a  few  critical  points.  Already 
Galton's  dream  is  in  process  of  realization,  for  in  the 
last  decade  mental  testing  has  become  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  branches  of  psychological  science.  The  credit 
for  pointing  the  way  belongs  largely  to  the  French 
psychologist,  Alfred  Binet,  who,  after  more  than  fif- 

1  For  a  more  extended  discussion  of  the  principles  of  mental 
testing,  including  detailed  instructions  for  the  use  of  the  Stanford 
Revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  Intelligence  Scale,  see  Terman,  Lewis 
M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.  Hough  ton  Mifflin  Company, 
1916;  pp.  362. 


S  ;     INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

teen  years  of  patient  research,  gave  to  the  world  in 
1908  the  system  of  mental  tests  now  known  as  the 
Binet-Simon  Intelligence  Scale.  In  various  revised 
forms  the  method  has  come  into  general  use  in  public 
schools,  institutions  for  defectives,  prisons,  reform 
schools,  and  juvenile  courts  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Europe.  Our  debt  to  Binet  is  very  great,  for 
he  succeeded  in  bringing  psychology  down  from  the 
clouds  and  making  it  useful  to  men. 

The  Binet  scale  is  made  up  of  an  extended  series  of 
tests  in  the  nature  of  problems,  success  in  which  de- 
mands the  exercise  of  the  intellectual  processes.  As 
left  by  Binet,  the  scale  consisted  of  fifty-four  tests, 
ranging  in  difficulty  from  tests  which  are  passed  by  the 
average  child  of  three  years,  to  tests  which  are  difficult 
enough  for  the  average  adult.  The  Stanford  Revision 
has  increased  the  number  of  tests  to  ninety  and  has 
extended  the  scale  far  enough  to  measure  the  intelli- 
gence of  superior  adults. 

The  ninety  tests  in  the  revised  scale  constitute  an 
extremely  variegated  series.  This  is  necessary,  since 
their  purpose  is  to  measure  the  subject's  general  intel- 
ligence, not  his  special  ability  in  a  particular  line.  They 
include  tests  of  memory,  language  comprehension, 
size  of  vocabulary,  orientation  in  time  and  space,  eye- 
hand  coordinations,  knowledge  about  familiar  things, 
judgment,  ability  to  find  likenesses  and  differences 
between  common  objects,  arithmetical  reasoning,  re- 
sourcefulness and  ingenuity  in  difficult  practical  situ- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING     3 

ations,  ability  to  detect  absurdities,  apperception,  the 
speed  and  richness  of  association  of  ideas,  the  power  to 
combine  the  dissected  parts  of  a  form  board  or  a  group 
of  ideas  into  a  unitary  whole,  the  capacity  to  generalize 
from  particulars,  the  ability  to  deduce  a  rule  from  con- 
nected facts,  etc.  Thus  the  tests  give  a  kind  of  com- 
posite picture  of  the  subject's  general  mental  ability, 
and  since  standards  of  comparison  have  been  estab- 
lished for  each  of  the  individual  tests  by  trying  it  out 
on  hundreds  of  unselected  normal  children  of  all  ages, 
it  is  possible  to  express  the  total  result  of  an  examina- 
tion in  terms  of  "mental  age"  norms. 

Why  a  mental  test.is  significant.  Are  we  justified 
in  attributing  real  diagnostic  'significance  to  the  little 
intellectual  "stunts"  called  for  by  an  intelligence 
scale?  Some  of  these  may  even  appear  trivial.  What 
does  it  signify,  for  example,  whether  a  given  ten-year- 
old  subject  names  forty  words  or  a  hundred  words  in 
three  minutes?  Whether  he  puts  together  the  parts, 
of  a  form  board  in  thirty  seconds  or  in  two  minutes? 
Whether  he  defines  thirty  words  or  sixty  words  of 
a  hundred-word  list?  Whether  his  definitions  of 
words  are  stated  in  terms  of  "  use  "  or  in  terms  "  su- 
perior to  use  "?  Whether  a  series  of  five  digits  or  only 
a  series  of  three  digits  can  be  repeated  backwards 
after  a  single  auditory  presentation?  Whether  there 
are  three,  two,  one,  or  no  successes  in  the  attempt  to 
draw  a  diamond-shaped  figure  from  copy? 

The  secret  lies  in  the  standardization  of  the  tests 


4       INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

upon  normal  children  of  different  ages.  Without  such 
a  standardization  the  tests  would  mean  nothing. 
Standardization  is  coming  to  play  the  same  role  in 
psychology  that  it  has  long  played  in  the  various 
branches  of  applied  science.  The  architect  or  bridge 
engineer  plans  his  structure  with  constant  reference 
to  foot-pounds  of  strain  which  various  materials  will 
withstand.  The  physician  analyzes  a  drop  of  blood 
and,  by  comparison  of  corpuscle  count  and  haemo- 
globin with  the  norms  for  health  and  disease,  is  able 
to  render  an  important  diagnosis.  The  psychologist 
working  with  mental  tests  may  be  compared  with  the 
palaeontologist  who  finds  in  a  gravel  bed  of  some 
prehistoric  age  a  skull  cap,  a  fragment  of  jaw,  and 
a  broken  humerus.  Although  the  layman  might  not 
even  recognize  the  human  origin  of  such  remnants,  the 
palaeontologist  is  able  to  tell  us  that  the  bones  are 
those  of  a  middle-aged  male,  that  the  species  to  which 
he  belonged  had  not  yet  learned  to  stand  erect,  that 
he  probably  did  not  know  the  use  of  fire  (worn  teeth 
indicate  that  he  subsisted  on  uncooked  foods),  that  his 
intelligence  was  inferior  (cranial  contents  only  two 
thirds  that  of  modern  man),  and  that  he  had  prob- 
ably evolved  but  limited  power  of  speech  (diminutive 
points  of  attachment  for  the  speech  muscles).  A  little 
technical  acquaintance  with  the  standards  of  shape, 
size,  and  structure  of  human  bones  has  transformed 
the  meaningless  fragments  into  a  "missing  link"  — 
Homo  neanderthalensis. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING     5 

Perhaps  no  two  things  could  be  more  alike  to  casual 
inspection  than  the  balls  of  two  thumbs;  yet  one  who 
has  been  taught  to  read  finger  prints  can  ordinarily 
find  from  forty  to  seventy  separate  and  individually 
sufficient  points  of  identification.  Just  as  many  a 
man  has  been  hanged  on  the  evidence  of  his  finger 
prints,  so  many  an  individual  might  safely  be  com- 
mitted to  an  institution  for  the  feeble-minded  on  the 
evidence  of  ten  or  a  dozen  intelligence  tests  which 
have  been  standardized  according  to  age  norms. 

The  meaning  of  mental  age.  Both  the  individual 
tests  of  the  Binet  scale  and  the  scale  as  a  whole  have 
been  standardized  on  the  basis  of  age  norms.  The 
tests  themselves  are  located  in  age  groups  in  such  a 
way  as  to  bring  it  about  that  the  average  child  of  eight 
years  will  earn  by  the  scale  a  "mental  age"  of  eight 
years,  the  average  twelve-year-old  a  "mental  age"  of 
twelve  years,  etc.  Such  an  arrangement  was  arrived 
at  empirically  by  trying  out  a  series  of  tests  upon  hun- 
dreds of  normal  children  of  different  ages.  The  Stan- 
ford Revision,  for  example,  was  based  on  tests  of  1700 
children  and  400  adults. 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  the  scale,  let  us  suppose  we 
are  testing  a  child  of  eight  years.  If  our  subject  passes 
successfully  as  far, as  the  average  child  of  eight  years, 
we  say  that  his  mental  age  is  eight  years,  or  in  this 
case  normal.  If  he  goes  as  far  as  the  average  ten-year- 
old,  we  say  that  he  has  a  mental  age  of  ten  years.  If 
he  earns  no  more  credit  than  the  average  six-year-old, 


6       INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

his  mental  age  is  six  years.  Binet  merely  took  a 
standard  of  comparison  which  every  one  uses  (namely, 
the  standard  of  age)  and  made  it  definite  by  finding 
out  what  intellectual  performances  representative  chil- 
dren of  different  ages  are  capable  of. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  reader  should  at  the  outset 
arrive  at  a  correct  understanding  of  what  the  term 
"mental  age"  is  and  is  not  intended  to  signify.  Two 
misconceptions  are  to  be  avoided: 

1.  That  each  "mental  age"  is  a  separate  and  quali- 
tatively distinct  level  of  mental  attainment,  contrast- 
ing markedly  with  both  the  mental  age  which  precedes 
it  and  that  which  follows  it.    Such  a  use  of  the  term  is 
not  in  harmony  with  the  facts.     Mental  development 
is  consecutive  and  gradual.     There  is  probably  no 
mental  power,   capacity,   or  function  which  has   a 
Minerva  birth.     The  "faculty"  in  question  develops 
first    in    rudimentary   form,    then    grows    gradually 
stronger   and   more  definite  until,  by  imperceptible 
stages,  it  reaches  a  state  of  maturity. 

2.  Another  misunderstanding  comes  from  the  as- 
sumption that  those  who  use  the  term  believe  a  given 
mental  age  is  a  stage  of  development  which  all  normal 
individuals  pass  through  at  the  corresponding  actual 
age.    Such  a  belief  would  imply  that  at  the  age  of  ten 
years,  for  example,  all  children  who  do  not  belong  to 
some  special  type  (defective,  genius,  etc.)  should  be 
found  at  the  ten-year  mental  age,  eight-year  children 
at  the  eight-year  mental  age,  etc.     It  is  one  of  the 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING     7 

main  purposes  of  this  book  to  show  how  widely  chil- 
dren of  a  given  age  differ  in  mental  age,  and  how 
greatly  children  of  adjacent  ages  overlap  each  other 
in  mental  age. 

The  real  meaning  of  the  term  is  perfectly  straight- 
forward and  unambiguous.  By  a  given  mental  age 
we  mean  that  degree  of  general  mental  ability  which  is 
possessed  by  the  average  child  of  corresponding  chrono- 
logical age. 

Mental  age  a  basis  for  school  grading.  The  signifi- 
cance of  mental  age  for  the  teacher  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  can  be  used  as  a  basis  for  grading  the  pupils  so  as 
to  secure  class  groups  of  homogeneous  ability.  As 
will  be  shown  in  succeeding  chapters,  the  pupils  of 
given  grades,  or  even  the  pupils  of  one  grade  in  a  single 
classroom,  are  far  from  equal  in  general  intelligence 
or  in  ability  to  master  the  school  work.  Generally 
speaking,  not  far  from  a  fourth  of  the  pupils  in  any 
given  grade  have  a  mental  level  too  low  to  make  satis- 
factory work  in  that  grade  possible,  while  another 
fourth  have  reached  a  mental  level  which  would  enable 
them  to  succeed  in  a  higher  grade. 

The  intelligence  quotient.  The  mental  age  merely 
indicates  the  level  of  development  which  a  child  has 
reached  at  a  given  time.  Considered  apart  from 
chronological  age  it  does  npt  tell  us  whether  a  child 
is  bright,  dull,  or  average.  Of  three  children  all  test- 
ing at  the  mental  age  of  eight  years,  one  might  very 
well  be  exceptionally  superior,  one  average,  and  one 


8       INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

feeble-minded.  Such  would  be  the  case  if  their  chron- 
ological ages  were  six,  eight,  and  twelve  years.  In 
addition  to  an  index  of  absolute  mental  level,  we  need 
an  index  of  relative  brightness.  Such  is  the  intelli- 
gence quotient  (I  Q),  which  is  the  ratio  of  mental  age 
to  chronological  age.  The  six-year-old  of  eight-year 
mental  age  has  an  I  Q  of  8/6  or  133  j1  the  twelve-year- 
old  with  a  mental  age  of  eight  years,  an  I Q  of  8/ 12,  or 
67.  In  computing  the  I  Q  of  an  adult  subject,  years 
of  chronological  age  in  excess  of  sixteen  are*  disre- 
garded, as  the  development  of  native  intelligence 
seems  practically  to  cease  not  far  from  this  age. 

An  idea  of  how  greatly  school  children  differ  in 
brightness  is  shown  by  the  analysis  of  the  I  Q's  of  1000 
representative  children  in  which  it  was  found  that:  2 

The  lowest    1%  go  to  70  or  below,  the  Highest  1%  reach  130  or  above 

"        2%  "   "  73  "       ' 2%  "  128 "  " 

3%  "   "  76 "  8%  '  125  " 

"        5%  "   "  78  "       "        "        "  5%  "  122  " 

"      10%  "   "  85 10%  "  116  "  " 

"      15%  "  "  88 "       "        "        "  15%  "  113  "  " 

"      20%  "   "  91  "        * 20%  "  110  "'  " 

"      25%  "   "  92 25%  "  108  "  " 

.*      ,.      83%  ..   «  95 ..                           «  33%  »  10Q  »  «• 

The  intelligence  quotient  a  basis  for  prediction. 
Just  as  mental  age  indicates  the  school  grade  in  whiclf 
a  child  normally  belongs  at  a  given  time,  so  the  I  Q  is 
the  basis  for  prediction  hi  regard  to  the  child's  later 
mental  development.  The  possibility  of  such  predic- 

1  More  correctly,  1.33;  but  the  decimal  point  is  customarily 
omitted,  the  quotient  being  understood  as  expressed  in  per  cent. 

2  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.    Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1916.    See  chapter  v. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING     9 


tion  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  I  Q  has  been  found 
in  the  large  majority  of  cases  to  remain  fairly  constant, 
at  least  for  the  ages  between  three  or  four  and  four- 
teen or  fifteen.  For  illustration,  we  will  take  the  case 
of  a  four-year-old  child  who  is  found  to  have  a  mental 
age  of  five  years,  and  whose  I  Q  is  therefore  125.  The 
probability  is  that  this  child  will  continue  to  have  a 
mental  age  not  far  from  25  per  cent  above  his  chrono- 
logical age,  with  the  consequences  which  may  be  ex- 
pressed as  follows  : 

Chronological          Probable 
age  mental  age 

5    years 


4  years 

6     " 

g  " 
10  " 
12  " 


10 


15 


Probable  school 

ability 

Upper  kindergarten 
Second  school  grade 
High  fourth  grade 
Low  seventh  grade 
First  year  high  school 


It  would,  of  course,  be  absurd  to  expect  the  I  Q 
to  maintain  itself  at  an  absolutely  constant  figure. 
Fluctuations  occur  for  at  least  three  reasons:  (1)  There 
may  be  in  exceptional  cases  a  certain  amount  of  irregu- 
larity  in  the  actual  rate  of  mental  development. 
(2)~The  results  of  a  test  may  be  influenced  tq  some 
extenFBy  the" conditions^  unH^r  whirfr  it.  is  ffiven,  the 
state  of  the  child's  health,  his  attitude  toward  the 
test,  fatigue,  and  other  temporary  or  accidental  fac- 
tors. Re-tests  after  a  brief  interval  indicate  that 
errors  from  this  source  are  ordinarily  not  large. 
<3)  There  is  inevitably  a  certain  amount  oLerror  in 
every_J_Qrating,  due  to  imperfections  in  the  scale 


10      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

used.  If  the  scale  has  been  so  standardized  that  it 
yields  mental  ages  which  are  too  low,  the  I  Q  found 
will  be  too  low;  if  the  scale  errs  in  the  direction  of  being 
too  generous,  the  resulting  I  Q  will  be  too  high.  A 
scale  may  err  in  one  direction  at  one  level  and  in  the 
opposite  direction  at  another  level.  It  was  the  most 
serious  fault  of  the  original  Binet  scale  that  in  the 
lower  range  of  tests  it  yielded  mental  ages  which  were 
too  high,  and  in  the  upper  range  mental  ages  which 
were  too  low.  The  effect  of  such  errors  is  greatly  to 
exaggerate  the  amount  of  fluctuation  to  which  mental 
growth  is  subject.  It  was  the  main  purpose  of  the 
Stanford  Revision  to  reduce  these  constant  errors. 
Chapter  XI  shows  in  detail  the  degree  of  constancy 
which  may  be  expected  for  the  I  Q  when  the  Stanford 
Revision  is  used.  While  the  law  of  constancy  is  sub- 
ject to  minor  revisions,  few  things  are  more  certain 
than  the  essential  untruth  of  the  widespread  belief 
that  mental  development  knows  no  regularity,  and 
that  the  dullard  of  to-day  becomes  the  genius  of  to- 
morrow. The  fact  is  that,  apart  from  minor  fluctua- 
tions due  to  temporary  factors,  and  apart  from  oc- 
casional instances  of  arrest  or  deterioration  due  to 
acquired  nervous  disease,  the  feeble-minded  remain 
feeble-minded,  the  dull  remain  dull,  the  average  re- 
main average,  and  the  superior  remain  superior. 
There  is  nothing  in  one's  equipment,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  character,  which  rivals  the  I  Q  in  importance. 
Effect  of  environment  on  the  I  Q.  The  question  is 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING    11 

always  raised  whether,  in  estimating  a  child's  intelli- 
gence on  the  basis  of  the  I  Q,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
make  allowance  for  the  influence  of  social  environ- 
ment. For  example,  it  is  often  argued  that  the  child 
cannot  know  his  age  if  he  has  never  heard  it,  cannot 
read  and  report  the  memory  passages  if  he  has  never 
attended  school,  cannot  count  from  20  to  1  if  he  has 
never  been  taught  to  count  from  1  to  20,  cannot  name 
the  days  of  the  week  or  the  months  of  the  year  unless 
he  has  heard  others  name  them,  and  that  therefore 
the  I  Q  can  have  little  significance  except  possibly 
as  an  index  of  the  subject's  social  and  educational 
environment. 

It  is,  of  course,  true  that  an  individual  who  for  his 
entire  life  had  been  entirely  deprived  of  human  en- 
vironment (assuming  such  a  thing  to  be  possible) 
could  not  pass  a  satisfactory  Binet  test,  however  nor- 
mal his  original  endowment  may  have  been.  To  use 
an  extreme  illustration,  a  child  of  ten  years  who  had 
been  reared  in  a  cage,  whose  wants  had  been  supplied 
while  he  was  asleep,  or  by  means  of  ingenious  mechan- 
ical contrivances,  who  had  never  seen  a  human  being, 
could  hardly  be  expected  to  make  a  brilliant  showing 
in  defining  words  in  the  vocabulary  test,  detecting 
absurdities,  repeating  sentences,  reading  the  Binet 
passage,  answering  comprehension  questions,  or  nam- 
ing sixty  words.  We  may  go  further  and  assume  that 
•fejplB  subject  would  be  as  little  successful  with  the 
three-year  as  with  the  ten-year  test. 


12      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Needless  to  say,  the  Binet  scale  was  not  intended  for 
subjects  of  the  type  we  have  just  described.  Its  use 
in  a  given  case  takes  for  granted  that  the  ordinary  and 
all  but  inevitable  social  contacts  have  been  made,  that 
the  subject  is  not  deaf  or  blind,  and  that  he  has  had 
reasonable  opportunity  to  learn  the  language  in  which 
the  tests  are  given.  Children  who  have  attended 
school  for  any  considerable  time  meet  all  of  these 
requirements,  whatever  the  social  status  of  the  home. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  limited  acquaintance  with  the 
language  employed  in  the  examination  does  not  put 
the  subject  at  great  disadvantage  in  many  of  the  tests. 
In  some  it  does,  and  in  testing  subjects  who  are  under 
this  handicap  the  vocabulary  test  and  a  few  others 
may  very  well  be  omitted.  Following  are  two  illus- 
trations which  show  that  the  validity  of  the  scale  does 
not  hinge  entirely  upon  the  subject's  knowledge  of 
English: 

1.  Kohs  tested  a  Belgian  refugee  child  of  nine  years 
who  had  been  in  America  but  two  years.     Although 
this  child's  acquaintance  with  the  English  language 
was  very  limited,  the  I  Q  earned  on  the  Stanford- 
Binet  scale  was  99.    The  child  was  also  doing  school 
work  of  average  quality  in  the  fourth  grade. 

2.  Dickson  tested  a  Japanese  boy,  aged  five  years, 
two  months,  who  had  never  attended  school  and  who 
had  had  little  opportunity  to  learn  English;  yet  this 
boy  earned  a  mental  age  of  seven  years  and  anji  (^ 
of  133. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING    13 

That  lack  of  schooling  does  not  prevent  a  subject 
from  earning  an  average  or  superior  score  in  the  test 
is  shown  by  the  cases  of  S.  S.  and  Gypsy  Mary. 

S.  S.  was  tested  at  the  age  of  seven  years.  He  had 
never  been  to  school,  and  although  his  home  advan- 
tages were  excellent,  he  had  had  no  formal  instruction 
and  had  never  learned  to  read.  The  parents  believed, 
perhaps  rightly,  that  the  important  needs  of  child- 
hood, apart  from  simple  moral  instruction,  are  food, 
fresh  air,  and  freedom  for  play.  Nevertheless,  S. 
earned  a  mental  age  of  ten  years,  eight  months,  and 
an  I  Q  of  153. 

In  1916  a  gypsy  girl  of  sixteen  years  was  given  the 
Stanford-Binet  test  in  a  clinic  in  Oakland,  California. 
This  girl  had  been  stolen  by  the  gypsies  when  she  was 
about  four  years  old,  had  lived  with  them  continu- 
ously until  a  few  days  before  the  test  was  made,  and 
had  never  attended  a  school.  The  I  Q  found  was  ap- 
proximately 100. 1 

It  is  not  denied  that  the  cultural  status  of  the  home 
(even  apart  from  heredity)  may  affect  the  result  of  the 
test  to  some  extent,  although  the  influence  has  never 
been  accurately  determined.  If  it  were  considerable, 

1  The  girl  had  run  away  from  the  gypsies  and  had  told  of  being 
kidnaped  by  them  when  a  child.  The  gypsies  denied  her  story  and 
stated  that  she  was  weak-minded  and  not  responsible  for  what  she 
said.  The  mental  test  was  given  to  determine  her  competence. 
As  a  result  of  her  testimony,  she  was  freed  from  her  gypsy  parents 
and  returned  to  her  home  State  (Montana),  where  she  was  placed 
in  school.  Within  a  year  she  had  completed  the  work  of  several 
grades  and  was  ready  to  enter  high  school. 


14      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

we  should  find  a  marked  rise  of  I  Q  in  the  case  of  chil- 
dren who  had  been  removed  from  an  inferior  to  a  sat- 
isfactory home  environment.  Our  data  on  this  point 
are  not  extensive,  but  of  a  dozen  or  more  children  of 
this  kind  whom  we  have  re-tested,  not  one  showed 
improvement.  Two  such  children,  Walter  and  Frank, 
have  been  under  observation  for  several  years.  Until 
the  ages  of  five  and  seven  years  they  lived  in  an  excep- 
tionally poor  home.  The  mother  was  dull,  the  father 
illiterate  and  a  drunkard.  Both  of  the  parents  died 
within  a  year  and  the  boys  were  adopted  by  a  woman 
of  decidedly  more  than  average  ability  who  treated 
them  as  her  own  sons.  At  the  time  of  adoption  one 
tested  at  73,  the  other  at  82.  Four  years  later  the 
I  Q's  were  70  and  77.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  children 
of  border-line  intelligence  improve  little  if  at  all  in  I  Q 
as  they  get  older,  notwithstanding  their  increased 
school  experience  and  the  extra  attention  they  receive 
in  special  classes. 

That  the  environment  of  the  home  affects  the  result 
of  the  test  but  little  is  further  shown  by  the  fact  that 
occasionally  in  a  very  inferior  home  all  of  the  children 
except  one  test  low,  as  would  be  expected,  while  that 
one  tests  exceptionally  high.  In  one  such  family 
(Portuguese)  there  are  three  children  who  test  between 
76  and  88,  while  a  brother  of  these  tests  at  130.  The 
latter  is  making  a  very  superior  record  in  high  school, 
which  he  entered  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years.  The 
others  have  not  been  able  to  complete  the  eighth 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INTELLIGENCE  TESTING    15 

grade.  All  have  had  the  same  home  environment  and 
the  same  educational  opportunities.1 

Scales  for  group  testing.  To  test  each  year  the 
intelligence  of  all  the  children  by  the  Binet  method 
would  involve  a  larger  task  than  the  school  is  likely 
to  undertake.  There  is  accordingly  a  wide  field  for 
tests  which  can  be  applied  to  an  entire  group,  or  class, 
at  once.  The  various  scales  have  been  devised  for  this 
purpose.  The  group  scales  are  given  as  written  tests 
and  can  be  applied  to  an  entire  class  of  fifty  or  more 
pupils  in  about  an  hour.  To  score  the  records  requires 
about  ten  minutes  for  each  pupil,  or  a  total  of  about 
five  or  six  hours  for  a  class  of  average  size.  This  can 
be  done  evenings  or  at  odd  times.  Most  group  scales 
have  the  advantage  of  requiring  little  special  psycho- 
logical training  either  for  giving  the  tests  or  scoring 

them.      Anjinfnrt.iinfl.tg  limitation  nf  siinfi  gnaW  i'c  tTipf 

thev_are  not  satisfactory  in  the  lower  grartes  whprp  tlp» 
need  for  testing  ig_  greatest^.  As  measures  of  intelli- 
gence they  are  probably  somewhat  less  accurate  than 
scales  for  individual  testing,  but  their  obvious  advan- 
tages make  them  deserving  of  wide  use  with  pupils 
of  the  upper  grades  and  high  school.2 

However,  no  group  scale  will  ever  do  away  with  the 
necessity  of  individual  testing.  Rather  it  makes  the 
need  for  individual  testing  more  obvious.  All  the 

1  The  mental  growth  curves  of  two  of  these  children  are  shown  in 
Fig.  24,  p.  156. 

2  The  QtisJoroup_Teats  and  the  instructions  for  using  them  are 
supplied  by  The  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers,  New  York. 


16      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

pupils  in  the  fourth  grade  and  beyond  should  be  given 
a  test  by  the  group  method  every  year,  and  those 
whose  scores  are  either  very  high  or  very  low  in  the 
group  examination  should  be  given  a  Binet  test.  As 
will  be  shown  later  (chapter  IV),  it  is  highly  desirable 
that  every  pupil  be  given  a  mental  test  within  the  first 
half-year  of  his  school  life. 


CHAPTER  II 

AMOUNT  AND  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL 
DIFFERENCES1 

Individual  differences  exist  for  all  traits.  When 
many  unselected  children  of  a  given  age  are  examined 
for  any  trait,  large  individual  differences  are  found. 
This  is  true  whether  the  trait  in  question  is  height, 
weight,  strength,  lung  capacity,  number  of  blood  cor- 
puscles, hearing,  vision,  intelligence,  courage,  con- 
scientiousness, social  adaptability,  vanity,  or  any  one 
of  a  hundred  others.  Figures  1  to  5  illustrate  typical 
individual  differences  among  school  children  in  sense 
of  humor,  cheerfulness,  evenness  of  temper,  quality  of 
school  work,  and  ability  to  give  sustained  attention. 
The  graphs  show  the  per  cent  of  pupils  who  were  classi- 
fied by  their  teachers  as  "very  inferior,"  "inferior," 
"average,"  "superior,"  or  "very  superior"  in  regard 
to  each  of  the  traits. 

The  above  graphs  represent  the  distribution  of 
teachers'  ratings;  that  is,  estimates  based  on  personal 
observation  of  the  pupils  rated.  Actual  measurement 
of  the  traits  would  have  been  preferable  to  ratings, 
had  such  measurement  been  possible,  but  there  are 

1  For  a  more  extended  discussion  of  individual  differences  see 
E.  L.  Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  m  (1914),  pp.  141- 
308.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 


18      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Very  inferior          Inferior  Average  Superior          Very  superior 

7.6%  24.8%  44.8%  17.9%  4.8% 

FIG.  1.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  145  FIRST-GRADE  CHIL- 
DREN IN  SENSE  OP  HUMOR.  (Teachers'  ratings.) 


Very  inferior         Inferior  Average  Superior          Very  superior 

6.8%  18.6%  47.6%  21.4%  6.5% 

FIG.  2.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  145  FIRST-GRADE  CHIL- 
DREN IN  CHEERFULNESS.  (Teachers'  ratings.) 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


19 


Very  inferior         Inferior  Average  Superior          Very  superior 

5.5%  17.2%  49.6%  20%  7.6% 

FIG.  8.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  145  FIRST-GRADE  CHIL- 
DREN IN  EVENNESS  OF  TEMPER.  (Teachers'  ratings.) 


Very  inferior         Inferior  Average  Superior          Very  superior 

5.2%  17.9%  51%  22.1%  3.8% 

FIG.  4.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  503  CHILDREN  IN 
QUALITY  OF  SCHOOL  WORK.  (Teachers'  ratings.) 


20      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Very  inferior         Inferior  Average  Superior         Very  superior 

4.6%  21.2%  39.8%  27%  7.4% 

FIG.  5.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  392  CHILDREN,  FIRST  TO 

EIGHTH  GRADE,  IN  ABILITY  TO  GIVE  SUSTAINED  ATTENTION. 

(Teachers'  ratings.) 


still  many  domains  of  mind  and  character  for  which 
measuring  scales  have  not  been  devised. 

It  may  be  argued  that  the  individual  differences 
represented  in  the  above  graphs  are  spurious;  that 
they  merely  reflect  the  varying  degrees  of  error  in  the 
judgments  of  those  who  furnished  the  ratings.  It  is 
an  extremely  significant  fact,  however,  that  whenever 
we  succeed  in  devising  a  method  for  actually  measuring 
a  mental  trait,  as  large  individual  differences  are  found 
for  it  as  for  such  physical  traits  as  height  or  weight. 
The  latter  are  of  course  susceptible  of  as  accurate 
measurement  as  practical  purposes  are  likely  to  de- 
mand. The  progress  of  children  through  the  grades 
of  a  school  system  can  be  measured  in  terms  of  age- 
grade  status  with  sufficient  accuracy.  In  the  case 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  21 

of  intelligence,  also,  the  individual  differences  can  be 
measured;  perhaps  less  accurately  than  height,  yet  far 
more  accurately  than  they  can  be  estimated  on  the 
basis  of  common  observation.  Figure  6  illustrates 
typical  differences  among  ten-year-old  boys  in  height; 
Figure  7,  typical  differences  among  ten-year-old  boys 
in  ability  to  win  promotions  in  school;  Figure  8,  typi- 
cal differences  among  twelve-year-old  boys  in  I  Q;  and 
Figure  9,  typical  differences  among  1458  children  as 
shown  by  teachers'  ratings  for  intelligence.  Attention 
is  directed  to  the  fact  that  individual  differences  are 
equally  in  evidence  for  the  four  traits. 

The  causes  of  individual  differences  in  school  prog- 
ress. In  the  case  of  a  physical  trait  such  as  height, 
perhaps  few  would  deny  that  the  differences  found 
represent  in  the  main  differences  in  original  endow- 
ment. That  the  progress  children  make  through  the 
grades  of  a  school  system  is  also  chiefly  dependent 
upon  original  endowment  is  neither  so  obvious  nor  so 
generally  believed.  The  common  opinion  seems  to  be 
that  nearly  all  children  are  capable  of  satisfactorily 
accomplishing  eight  grades  of  school  work  in  eight 
years,  and  that  if  they  fail  to  do  so  it  is  because  of 
faulty  school  management.  The  remedies  most  often 
proposed  for  the  prevention  of  retardation  are  better 
attendance  laws,  school  census  reform,  extension  and 
improvement  of  medical  inspection,  flexible  grading, 
and  adaptations  of  the  course  of  study. 

That  reform  in  all  these  lines  is  needed,  for  other 


22      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


119-123 

2.1% 


124-128 
11% 


129-133 
22% 


134-138 
29.2% 


139-143 
23.7% 


144-148 
10.2% 


149-153 
1-7% 


FIG.  6.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  HEIGHT  AMONG  236  BOYS,  AGED 
9|  TO  10£  YEARS.  (Baldwin.) 


Grade  I 

•7% 


II 

4.8% 


III 

24% 


IV 

49.4% 


V 

18,6% 


VI 

2.3% 


VII 

•2% 


FIG.  7.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  1896  TEN-YEAR-OLD 
BOYS  IN  ABILITY  TO  WIN  PROMOTIONS  IN  SCHOOL.  (Shows  grade 
location  of  ten-year-old  boys  in  Salt  Lake  City,  May,  1915.) 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  23 


I  Q  66-75        76-85  86-95  96-105         106-115         116-125       126-135 

5%         15%  20.5%  28%  19.5%  11%  .8% 

FIQ.  8.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  83  UNSELECTED  12- YEAR- 
OLD  CHILDREN  IN  I Q  AS  MEASURED  BY  THE  STANFORD^BINET  SCALE 


Very  inferior  Inferior  Average  Superior          Very  superior 

1.5%  16.2%  63.3%  15.5%  3.6% 

Fia.  9.  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  INTELLIGENCE  AMONG  1458 
CHILDREN,  GRADES  V  TO  VIII.  (Teachers'  ratings.) 


>4      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

reasons  as  well  as  for  the  reduction  of  retardation,  will 
be  admitted  by  all.  We  are  beginning  to  learn,  how- 
ever, that  all  of  these  measures  combined  are  power- 
less to  reduce  greatly  the  number  of  over-age  children 
in  the  grades.  Notwithstanding  the  persistent  cam- 
paign which  has  been  waged  against  the  evils  of  retar- 
dation for  the  last  dozen  years,  the  number  of  retar- 
dates remains  to-day  much  the  same  as  it  was  when 
the  campaign  began.  We  are  justified  in  raising  the 
question  whether  the  most  important  cause  of  retarda- 
tion has  been  located,  and  whether  it  is  one  that  can 
be  removed. 

In  the  various  chapters  of  this  book  certain  data 
from  intelligence  tests  will  be  analyzed  in  the  attempt 
to  formulate  an  answer  to  the  above  question.  The 
facts  which  will  be  presented  point  fairly  definitely  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  differences  which  have  been 
found  to  exist  among  children  in  physical  traits  are 
paralleled  by  equal  differences  in  mental  traits,  par- 
ticularly intelligence.  It  will  be  shown  that  these  in- 
nate differences  in  intelligence  are  chiefly  responsible 
for  the  problem  of  the  school  laggard;  that  the  so- 
called  "retarded"  children  on  whom  we  have  expended 
so  much  sympathy  are  in  reality  nearly  always  above 
the  grade  where  they  belong  by  mental  development; 
i  and  that  the  real  retardates  are  the  under-age  children, 
l  who  are  generally  found  from  one  to  three  grades 
below  the  location  which  their  mental  development 
would  warrant.  In  other  words,  it  will  be  shown  that 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


the  retardation  problem  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  what 
it  is  popularly  supposed  to  be. 

Overlapping  of  mental  ages  in  the  different  grades. 
The  extent  of  the  school's  failure  to  grade  children 
according  to  their  ability  will  be  evident  from  an 
examination  of  Figure  10,  which  shows  the  actual  dis- 
tribution of  mental  ages  disclosed  by  the  Stanford- 
Binet  scale  in  the  first  grade,  the  fifth  grade,  and  the 
first  year  of  high  school  in  typical  public  school  sys- 
tems of  California.  It  will  be  seen  that  not  om*y  do 
the  first-grade  children  greatly  overlap  those  of  the 
fifth  gradcrrand  fifth-grade  children  those  of  the  first 
year  of  Ifign  school,  but  that  the  brightest  child  in  the 
first  grade  has  all  but  reached  a  point  in  mental  ability 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  lowest  pupil  in  the  high 
school  The  brightest  of  the  fifth-grade  pupils  is 
above  the  median  mental  level  for  the  first  year  of  high 


n 


3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10  11  12  13  14  15  1G  17  18  19 
Mental  Age 

FIG.  10.  OVERLAPPING  IN  THE  MENTAL  AGES  OP  CHILDREN  IN  THE 
FIRST,  FIFTH,  AND  NINTH  GRADES 


26      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


school,  and  the  brightest  of  the  first  grade  reaches  the 
median  for  the  fifth  grade. 

That  there  are  children  in  the  first  grade  as  old 
chronologically  as  the  youngest  in  the  eighth  grade  is 
generally  understood  and  deplored,  but  few  teachers 
are  aware  of  the  fact  that  mental  ages  are  scattered 
through  the  grades  hardly  less  promiscuously.  Table 
1  shows  the  grade  distribution  by  mental  age  of  676 


MENTAL  AGE 

GRADE  ATTENDED 
I           II          III        IV          V          VI        VII      VIII 

7-6  to  8-5 

25.5  % 

56.6  % 

18.4% 

8-6  to  9-5 

4% 

24.5% 

49% 

19.4% 

1% 

1% 

1% 

9-6  to  1O-5 

3.8% 

28.5  % 

46.6% 

14.2% 

5.7% 

.9% 

10-6  to  11-5 

7% 

23% 

44.6  % 

20% 

3.5% 

1.2% 

11-6  to  12-5 

1% 

8.3% 

19.8% 

41.1  % 

16.6% 

12.5% 

12-6  to  13-5 

2.6  % 

9% 

37.1  % 

24.3% 

27% 

13-6  to  14-5 

1.5% 

6% 

31% 

23.5% 

38.2% 

TABLE  1.  DISTRIBUTION  IN  THE  GRADES  OP  676  UNSELECTED 
CHILDREN 

By  "7-6"  is  meant  7  years  and  6  months.    This  form  of  expression  will  be  used 
throughout  in  both  text  and  tables. 

V 

unselected  pupils  below  the  high  school  who  are  men- 
tally eight  years  old  or  older. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  27 

The  failure  of  school  grading  to  give  groups  of  homo- 
geneous  chronological  age  is  a  matter  of  hardly  any 
importance  compared  with  its  failure  to  give  groups, 
of  homogeneous  mental  ability.    The  chronologically . 
old  and  the  chronologically  young  may  and  often  do. 
belong  together,  the  mentally  old  and  the  mentally 
young  do  not.     Notwithstanding  the  sifting  which 
takes  place  at  the  end  of  each  school  year,  the  resulting 
classification  of  children  has  been  so  far  from  success- 
ful that,  generally  speaking,  the  lowest  25  per  cent  of  • 
pupils  in  any  grade  belong  mentally  in  a  lower  grade 
and  the  highest  25  per  cent  in  a  higher  grade.     Only 
the  middle  half  are  classified  approximately  where  • 
they  should  be.     Usually  more  than  15  per  cent  are 
at  least  two  grades  removed  from  the  one  in  which  » 
they  belong  by  mental  age. 

The  tendency  to  promote  by  age.  It  was  stated  in 
an  earlier  part  of  this  chapter  that  the  grade  progress 
of  .the  school  child  is  governed  largely  by  original 
endowment.  However,  facts  such  as  those  just  pre- 
sented show  that  endowment  is  by  no  means  the  sole 
factor;  for  if  it  were,  children  would  be  more  correctly 
graded  according  to  ability.  The  other  factor  is  the 
persistent  tendency  of  teachers  to  promote  by  the  cal- 
endar. The  dull  are  allowed  to  become  somewhat  re- 
tarded, but  are  nevertheless  promoted  beyond  their 
ability  to  do  the  work.  Occasionally  the  brightest  are 
allowed  to  become  accelerated,  but  comparatively 
rarely,  and  almost  never  as  much  as  they  deserve. 


28      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Here  are  two  children,  both  in  the  fifth  grade,  who 
offer  a  typical  illustration: 

A.  Boy;  age  14-3;  mental  age  8-6;  I  Q  60;  years  in  school 
seven  and  a  half;  quality  of  school  work  "very  inferior"; 
grade  status  on  the  usual  basis  of  reckoning,  retardation  of 
three  years.    In  reality  this  boy  is  accelerated  two  years,  for 
his  mental  level  of  8£  is  at  least  two  years  below  that  neces- 
sary for  satisfactory  work  in  the  high  fifth  grade. 

B.  Girl;  age  9-8;  mental  age  13-1;  I  Q  130;  years  in 
school  three;  quality  of  school  work  "very  superior";  grade 
status  reckoned  on  the  usual  basis,  two  years  acceleration. 
This  girl  is  not  really  accelerated,  but  retarded,  for  her 
mental  level  of  13  years  would  enable  her  to  do  average  work 
in  the  seventh  grade. 

The  one  criterion  of  fitness  for  promotion  should  be 
ability  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  next  higher 
grade.  Pupils  of  the  type  of  Child  A,  kept  always  at 
tasks  that  are  hopelessly  beyond  their  ability,  never 
learn  the  meaning  of  success.  Those  like  Child  B 
miss  the  mental  and  moral  stimulus  which  comes  from 
intense  application  to  tasks  commensurate  with  abil- 
ity. We  see  how  badly  misplaced  any  measure  of 
reform  would  be  which  was  designed  merely  to  "pre- 
vent retardation,"  in  the  usual  sense  of  that  term. 

But  what  is  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  over-age 
children?  Are  they  to  be  required  to  repeat  more 
grades  than  they  now  do?  Would  not  the  policy  of 
rigidly  holding  these  children  in  the  grade  correspond- 
ing to  mental  age  be  even  more  discouraging  than  the 
present  practice  of  over-promoting  them?  It  would 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  29 

be  unfortunate  indeed  if  we  were  obliged  to  choose 
between  the  two  evils.  Perhaps  another  solution  is 
possible  if  we  will  only  cease  to  think  exclusively  in 
terms  of  cross-section  education.  Instead  of  a  single 
curriculum  for  all,  merely  divided  into  eight  successive 
levels,  it  would  be  better  to  arrange  parallel  courses  of 
study  for  children  of  different  grades  of  ability.  Some 
such  solution  seems  necessary  if  we  are  to  adjust  school 
work  to  the  abilities  of  the  children  and  at  the  same 
time  avoid  the  admittedly  serious  evils  of  repetition. 


J 


CHAPTER  III 

INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  AMONG  KINDERGARTEN 
CHILDREN  * 

TESTS  were  made  by  Miss  Cuneo  of  112"  children 
attending  five  kindergarten  classes  in  the  cities  of  San 
Jose  and  San  Mateo,  California.  The  majority  of  the 
pupils  came  from  middle-class  homes,  a  few  from  each 
extreme  of  the  social  scale.  All  were  American  born. 
The  ages  were  as  follows: 


SM 

4-4* 

4*-5 

5-5* 

5$-6 

6-6* 

6*-7 

Total 

Boys  .  . 

5 

9 

11 

12 

20 

6  .. 

1 

64 

Girls  

4 

7 

9 

14 

11 

2 

1 

48 

Total 

9 

16 

20 

26 

31 

8 

2 

112 

Range  in  mental  age.  Although  the' total  range  of 
actual  ages  was  from  3 \  to  7  years,  all  but  19  of  the 
pupils  were  between  4  and  6.  As  will  be  seen  from 
Table  2,  the  range  in  mental  age  was  greater  than  thisj 
namely,  from  3-4  to  7-7.  Of  the  112  pupils,  5  were 
mentally  below  4  years,  35  between  6  and  7,  and  3 
above  7.  The  kindergarten  group  all  but  overlaps  in 


1  Written  with  the  assistance  of  Irene  Cuneo. 


AMONG  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN        31 

mental  age  the  fifth-grade  group  described  in  chap- 
ter V.  The  highest  mental  age  found  in  the  kindergarten 
was  7-7,  the  lowest  in  the  f^fth  grade  7-9.  The  chances 
are  that  if  twice  as  many  had  been  tested  an  actual 
overlapping  would  have  been  found. 


Mental 

3  to 

3-6  to 

4  to 

4-6  to 

5  to 

5-6  to 

fi  to 

6-5  to 

7  to 

7-6  to 

Total 

age 

3-5 

3-11 

4-5 

4-11 

5-5 

5-11 

6-5 

6-11 

7-5 

7-11 

Number 

3 

2 

11 

24 

17 

17 

19 

16 

2 

1 

112 

TABLE  2 .     MENTAL  AGES  OF  112  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN 


1}      4       4|       6       0|       6       (ft)       7       7ft 

Mental  Age 
Kindergarten  ________________ 

First  grade 


FIG.  11.  SHOWING  OVERLAPPING   OF  KINDERGARTEN  AND   FIRST- 
GRADE  CHILDREN  IN  MENTAL  AGE 


Comparison  of  the  mental  ages  of  these  112  kinder- 
garten children  with  the  mental  ages  of  150  unselected 
first-grade  children  tested  by  Dickson  may  be  made 
from  Figure  11.  Nearly  a  fourth  of  the  kindergarten 


32      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

children  equaled  or  exceeded  the  median  mental  age 
of  those  in  the  first  grade,  and  more  than  half  equaled 
or  exceeded  the  lowest  fourth  of  first-grade  children. 
A  large  proportion  of  these  kindergarten  children  have 
a  mental  maturity  which  would  enable  them  to  do 
satisfactory  work  in  the  first  grade. 

The  most  abrupt  break  hi  the  curriculum  is  that 
from  the  kindergarten  to  the  first  grade.  At  all  other 
points  every  effort  is  made  to  bridge  the  gaps.  The 
transition  from  first  grade  to  second,  from  fifth  to 
sixth,  etc.,  is  almost  imperceptible.  Even  the  first 
year  of  high  school  is  rapidly  being  integrated  with  the 
last  year  of  the  grammar  school  so  as  to  give  the  child 
an  unbroken  educational  path  which  he  may  traverse 
from  the  first  grade  to  the  university.  The  kinder- 
garten alone  holds  aloof,  worships  at  the  shrine  of  a 
special  methodological  cult,  and  treats  its  children  as 
belonging  to  a  different  order  of  human  beings. 

The  tests  of  Dickson  and  Cuneo  show  how  little 
justification  there  is  for  such  an  attitude.  The  fact 
that  nearly  a  fourth  of  kindergarten  children  do  not 
differ  at  all  in  mental  ability  from  average  first-grade 
children,  and  that  a  fourth  of  first-grade  children  are 
on  a  par  with  the  median  kindergarten  child,  indicates 
that  it  would  be  well  for  the  teachers  of  these  two 
grades  to  come  to  some  kind  of  understanding. 

Distribution  of  intelligence  quotients.  The  I  Q's 
of  the  112  children  are  listed  below  in  order  from  high- 
est to  lowest. 


AMONG  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN        33 

152  114  106  93 

146"  114  105  93 

142  114  103  92>, 

136  113  103  91 

130  113  103  91 

130  113  102  90 

129  113  .  102  90 

126  112  102  90 

126  112  102  90 

125  111  102  88 

124  111  101  86 

124  110  101  86 

123  110  100  85 

122  v'j,     HO  100  85 

121  110  100  85 

121  109  99  84 

121  109  98  82 

121  109  98  81 

121  109  98  80 

12Q  109  97  80 

119  108  97  80 

119  108  96  80 

118  107  96  79 

117  107  96  77 

117  107  96  y  76 

114  107  94  |  75 

114  106  94  I  72_ 

114  fl06  ,  93  61 


The  range  is  from  61  to  152,  that  is,  from  feeble- 
mindedness to  very  unusual  superiority.  While  only 
one  could  be  certainly  classed  as  a  defective,  there  are 
at  least  three  others  who  are  at  the  borderline  of  men- 
tal deficiency.  The  lowest  25  per  cent  fall  to  91  or 
below,  the  highest  25  per  cent  reach  117  or  above. 
The  median  is  106. 


34      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Figure  12  shows  graphically  the  number  falling  in 
the  I  Q  groups  60-69,  70-79,  etc. 


60-        70-         80-         90-        100-        110-       120-      130-      140-       150- 
69          79          89  99          109          119         129         139        149          159 

.9%    4.5%    11.6%    19.6%    25%      20.5%    12.5%    2.6%    1.8%        .9% 

FIG.  12.  I  Q  DISTRIBUTION  OP  112  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN 

Sex  differences.  Is  there  a  sex  difference  in  intelli- 
gence at  the  kindergarten  age?  We  have  asked  many 
kindergarten  teachers  this  question  and  have  often 
received  an  affirmative  answer.  The  opinion  seems  to 
prevail  that  girls,  even  at  this  early  age,  are  somewhat 
more  precocious  than  boys.  Comparison  of  Miss 
Cuneo's  65  boys  and  47  girls  suggests  that  this  opinion 
may  not  be  without  foundation.  The  medians  and 
upper  and  lower  quartiles  were  as  follows: 


Median 

Lower  quartile 

Upper  quartile 

Boys.. 

103 

90 

114 

Girls  

108 

96  5 

116  5 

AMONG  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN        35 


Although  the  brightest  subject  tested  was  a  boy, 
the  median  for  girls  is  five  points  higher  than  for  boys. 
This  is  not  a  large  difference,  but  it  is  appreciable.  It 
is  probable  that,  age  for  age,  girls  are  slightly  superior 
to  boys  in  the  kind  of  intellectual  ability  measured  by 
the  usual  type  of  intelligence  test.  This  conclusion  is 
borne  out  by  the  results  of  many  other  investigations 
by  the  test  method.  It  is  also  in  harmony  with  sex 
comparisons  based  on  teachers'  ratings  and  school 
marks.  In  the  present  study,  56  of  the  boys  and  47 
of  the  girls  were  rated  for  intelligence  and  46  of  the 
boys  and  36  of  the  girls  for  quality  of  school  work. 
The  results  were  as  follows : 

TEACHERS'  RATINGS  ON  INTELLIGENCE 


Inferior  and 
very  inferior 
(per  cent) 

Average 
(per  cent) 

Superior  and 
very  superior 
(per  cent) 

Boys 

17  9 

62  5 

19  8 

Girls      

6  4 

61  7 

»^r* 

31  9 

TEACHERS'  RATINGS  ON  SCHOOL  WORK 


Inferior  and 
very  inferior 
(per  cent) 

Average 
(per  cent) 

Superior  and 
very  superior 
(per  cent) 

Bovs 

23.  9\ 

58  7 

17  4 

Girls  

8.3 

58.3 

•i 
33  3 

36      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Although  the  superiority  of  the  girls  in  the  tests  is 
very  slight,  sometimes  almost  negligible,  we  have 
found  in  something  like  a  dozen  separate  studies  that 
for  a  given  age  or  grade  the  girls  invariably  make  a 
significantly  better  showing  than  boys  when  rated  by 
their  teachers  either  for  intelligence  or  for  quality  of 
school  work.  We  do  not  attempt  to  say  whether  girls 
make  a  better  use  of  their  intelligence  or  whether  they 
are  more  responsive  and  so  appear  brighter  than  they 
are.  Both  causes  may  enter. 

Significance  of  the  tests.  What  do  the  large  indi- 
vidual differences  revealed  by  the  tests  signify  in 
terms  of  future  educational  achievement?  Is  it  pos- 
sible, as  a  result  of  a  forty-minute  test  of  a  child  who  is 
only  four  or  five  years  old,  to  forecast  with  any  degree 
of  assurance  his  educational  career?  With  accuracy, 
no;  in  general  terms,  yes.  There  is  little  likelihood 
that  the  child  who  tested  at  61 1  Q  will  ever  go  above 
median  nine-year  or  ten-year  intelligence.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  three  brightest  children  in  the  group, 
who  tested  as  high  as  140,  could  in  all  probability  be 
made  ready  for  high  school  by  the  age  of  eleven  or 
twelve  years. 

Miss  Cuneo  re-tested  seventy-seven  of  her  pupils, 
as  follows: 

(1)  Twenty-five  pupils,  interval  of  two  days;  (2) 
twenty-one  pupils,  interval  of  half-year;  (3)  thirty-one 
pupils,  interval  of  two  years.  The  agreement  between 
the  first  test  and  the  repeated  test  was  very  close 


AMONG  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN        37 

except  in  a  few  cases.  The  median  amount  of  change 
in  I  Q  was  only  sjxj)oints.  One  fourth  of  the  subjects 
showed  a  change  of  three  points  or  less,  and  one  fourth 
eight  points  or  more. 

Of  the  thirty-one  pupils  re-tested  after  two  years, 
there  were  four  who  had  earned  an  I  Q  of  130  or  above 
in  the  first  test.  Two  years  later  all  still  tested  above 
130  and  all  were  doing  "superior"  or  "very  superior" 
work  in  the  second  grade.  Three  of  them  had  gained 
an  extra  promotion.  Of  the  ten  at  the  other  extreme 
who  had  earned  an  I  Q  of  100  or  less,  not  one  had 
gained  an  extra  promotion. 

However,  there  is  a  serious  source  of  error  to  guard 
against  when  testing  children  of  this  age.  Kinder- 
garten children  are  in  the  bashful  stage  and  are  likely 
to  respond  only  with  silence  to  tests  which  they  could 
easily  pass.  The  examiner  must,  therefore,  take  care 
to  get  into  rapport  with  the  child  if  he  would  avoid  the 
error  of  mistaking  diffidence  for  lack  of  intelligence. 

Special  need  of  tests  in  the  kindergarten.  There  is 
one  reason  why  tests  are  more  necessary  in  the  kinder- 
garten than  anywhere  else,  if  the  intellectual  differ- 
ences which  exist  among  pupils  are  to  be  discovered. 
In  other  school  grades  the  work  itself  constitutes  a 
kind  of  intelligence  tesf .  The  first-grade  child  who 
cannot  learn  to  read,  or  the  fourth-grade  cjiild  who 
cannot  learn  long  division,  is  readily  recognized  as 
inferior.  The  work  of  the  average  kindergarten  offers 
no  such  clear-cut  criterion  of  intellectual  normality. 


38      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

The  games,  drawing,  sand-pile  activities  and  card- 
board construction  may  disclose  certain  differences, 
but  these  are  vague  and  lack  meaning. 

This  difficulty  was  reflected  in  teachers'  ratings  of 
the  kindergarten  children  for  intelligence.  When 
asked  to  estimate  the  intelligence  of  each  child  on  the 
usual  scale  of  five:  very  superior,  superior,  average, 
inferior,  and  very  inferior,  the  teachers  protested  that 
there  was  almost  nothing  in  kindergarten  work  on 
which  they  could  base  a  judgment.  The  ratings  on 
intelligence  were  finally  secured,  but  they  correlated 
with  I  Q's  only  to  the  extent  of  .29.  This  is  not  more 
than  half  the  correlation  usually  found  in  the  grades 
above  the  kindergarten.  The  correlation  of  I  Q's  and 
the  ratings  for  quality  of  school  work  was  only  .27, 
and  that  between  mental  age  and  ratings  for  quality 
of  school  work  only  .43. 

Certain  disagreements  between  I  Q's  and  ratings 
were  due  to  failure  to  take  account  of  age  differences. 
The  6-year-old  is  rated  "superior"  on  an  I  Q  about 
10  to  20  points  lower  than  a  4 J-y ear-old  must  have  to 
reach  this  class.  The  former  gets  into  the  "superior" 
class  as  easily  with  100  I  Q  as  does  the  latter  with  115 
or  120.  The  following  cases  illustrate  this  error: 

G.  «&•,  age  3-£,  mental  age  .4-^,  I  Q  113,  was  rated  as 
"  inferior  .rf'  M.  L.,  also  testing  at  113,  but  aged  5-9,.  was 
rated  "superior." 

N.  W.,  age  3-11,  mental  age  4-3,  I  Q  109,  is  rated  "in- 
ferior." J.  M.,  age  6-11,  mental  age  6-fr,  I  Q  94,  is  rated 
"superior.*' 


AMONG  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN        89 


M.  S.,  age  4-1,  mental  age  5-4, 1 Q  130,  is  rated  "inferior." 
J.  P.,  age  6-3,  mental  age  6-10,  I  Q  109,  is  rated  "very 
superior." 

The  kindergarten's  demands  upon  intelligence. 
The  correlation  between  mental  age  and  quality  of 
work  is  shown  in  Table  3. 


Mental  age 

Very 
inferior 

Inferior 

Average 

Superior 

Very 
superior 

7-  4  to  7-10 

1 

C-10  to  7-  3 

1 

i 

i' 

6-  4  to  6-  9 

.  . 

9 

3 

f 

5-10  to  6-  3 

1 

9 

5 

i 

5-  4  to  5-  9 

2 

3 

3 

4-10  to  5-  3 

2 

13 

4 

4-  4  to  4-  9 

3 

5 

3-10  to  4-  3 

i 

4 

5 

3-  4  to  3-  9 

1 

2 

TABLE  3.    CORRELATION  BETWEEN  MENTAL  AGE  AND  QUALITY  OF 

SCHOOL  WORK  FOR  80  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN 

(Correlation,  .43) 

It  will  be  seen  that  although  there  is  a  marked  ten- 
dency for  those  of  low  mental  age  to  do  "inferior" 
work  and  for  those  of  high  mental  age  to  do  "superior" 
work,  children  of  every  mental  age  from  3j  to  7?  are 
rated  as  doing  "average"  work.  This  can  only  mean 
that  the  activities  of  the  kindergarten  do  not  make 
very  serious  demands  on  general  mental  ability. 

Is  this  a  legitimate  ground  of  criticism  of  the  pre- 
primary  curriculum?  The  answer  will  depend  upon 
one's  philosophy  of  the  kindergarten.  There  is  much 
to  be  said  for  the  kindergarten  as  a  combination  of 


40      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

nursery  and  a  place  for  socialized  play.  From  this 
point  of  view  its  purpose  is  to  serve  the  life  of  instinct 
and  emotion,  rather  than  to  nourish  intelligence.  It 
is  a  point  of  view  which  is  attractive,  because  it  has 
the  support  of  sentiment.  Certainly  no  one  would 
wish  to  see  children  of  four  or  five  years  harnessed  to 
intellectual  work  to  the  exclusion  of  play.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  only  alternative.  Perhaps  some  of  the 
kindergarten  activities  could  be  so  adapted  as  to  neg- 
lect less  than  they  now  do  the  appeal  to  intelligence. 
Possibly  a  half -hour  of  the  day  could  be  advanta- 
geously reserved  for  work  of  a  somewhat  more  intel- 
lectual character  than  the  hopping,  skipping,  sand 
digging  or  "busy  work"  of  the  typical  conservative 
kindergarten,  much  of  which  has  little  to  commend 
it  from  any  point  of  view.  Madame  Montessori's 
injection  of  more  serious  activities  into  the  kinder- 
garten would  seem  to  mark  a  distinct  advance. 

The  contrast  between  the  usual  work  of  the  kinder- 
garten and  that  of  the  first  grade  could  be  justified 
only  on  the  theory  that  the  child  of  four  or  five  years 
is  all  instinct  and  emotion,  and  that  suddenly  at  the 
age  of  six  or  seven  he  is  brought  by  a  sudden  meta- 
morphosis into  the  life  of  intellect.  A  comparison  of 
the  intelligence  tests  of  kindergarten  and  first-grade 
children  shows  how  untenable  such  a  theory  is. 

But  if  adjustments  are  due  on  the  part  of  the  kinder- 
garten, they  are  perhaps  just  as  much  needed  in  the 
first  grade.  The  chasm  must  be  bridged  from  both 


AMONG  KINDERGARTEN  CHILDREN        41 

sides.  The  mere  fact  that  a  child  has  passed  his  sixth 
birthday  is  not  a  sufficient  justification  for  robbing 
him  of  all  the  freedom  he  has  enjoyed  in  kindergarten 
and  home. 


CHAPTER  IV 

INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FIRST  GRADE  * 

The  critical  importance  of  the  first  grade.  The  first 
grade  is  the  most  critical  in  the  school  system.  It  is 
the  place  above  all  others  where  the  raw  material  with 
which  the  school  is  to  work  should  be  correctly  evalu- 
ated. (.Success  or  failure  for  the  child's  school  career 
hangs  often  upon  his  success  or  failure  in  the  first  grade.,^- 
In  a  way  school  administrators  appreciate  this  fact. 
Effort  is  usually  made  to  place  the  best  teachers  in 
charge  of  the  entering  pupils.  *  School  doctors,  school 
nurses,  and  school  dentists  are  commonly  urged  to 
give  special  attention  to  the  younger  children.  Never- 
theless, it  is  in  the  first  grade  that  retardation  scores 
its  worst  record.  In  tJie  average  city  approximately  a 
fourth  of  the  pupils  fail  of  promotion  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year. 

Schools  for  backward  children  ordinarily  do  not 
draw  from  classes  below  the  third  grade.  By  this  time 
the  dull  pupil  is  already  a  lost  cause.  Special  classes 
for  superior  children,  when  they  exist  at  all,  are  too 
likely  to  confine  their  efforts  to  bright  pupils  whose 
intellectual  progress  has  already  been  retarded  by 
several  years  spent  in  the  educational  lockstep.  By 
1  Written  with  the  assistance  of  Virgie  E.  Dickson. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    43 

this  time  their  intellectual  ardor  has  cooled  and  the 
edges  of  their  mental  faculties  have  been  dulled. 

We  cannot  deny  that  the  task  which  faces  first- 
grade  teachers  and  supervisors  is  very  difficult.  Every 
twelve  months  the  schools  of  the  United  States  receive 
something  like  three  million  fresh  recruits.  What  we 
are  urging  is  the  immediate  assaying  of  all  this  ma- 
terial, year  after  year.  The  task  is  difficult,  but  we 
believe  it  is  worth  while. 

A  model  study  of  school  grading.  The  facts  which 
will  be  presented  are  from  an  investigation  by  Dickson, 
who  has  analyzed  the  results  of  nearly  a  thousand 
Stanford-Binet  tests  of  first-grade  children.  This  ac- 
count will  include  the  results  of  the  first  150  tests  only. 

The  group  included  all  the  pupils  found  in  the  first 
grade  in  five  different  schoolrooms  in  the  vicinity  of 
Stanford  University.  The  rooms  will  be  designated 
by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E.  Room  A  included 
chiefly  pupils  of  Spanish  and  Italian  descent,  but 
American  born.  Room  B  represented  a  mixture  of 
races,  with  American  predominating.  Room  C  was 
similar  to  A,  but  contained  a  considerable  number  of 
Portuguese,  in  addition  to  a  few  Italian  and  Spanish. 
Room  D  drew  mainly  from  the  upper  and  middle 
social  classes  of  American  extraction.  The  children 
of  Room  E  were  all  from  an  exceptionally  well-to-do 
residential  district. 

Dickson  used  the  tests  only  as  a  point  of  departure 
for  a  more  intensive  study  of  the  pupils.  His  purpose 


44      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

was  the  practical  one  of  trying  to  translate  individual 
differences  into  terms  of  classroom  management.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  cooperation  of  the  teachers  was  enlisted 
in  the  collection  of  a  large  amount  of  supplementary 
data  regarding  each  child,  including: 

1.  Date  of  entering  school; 

2.  Occupation  of  the  father; 

3.  Nationality  of  each  parent; 

4.  The  teacher's  estimate  of  the  child's  intelligence; 

5.  The  teacher's  rating  of  the  quality  of  the  school 
work; 

6.  The  teacher's  rating  of  each  child  (on  a  scale  of 
five,  as  in  the  case  of  intelligence  and  school  work)  on 
each  of  the  following  twenty-four  traits :  power  to  give 
sustained  attention,  persistence,  social  adaptability, 
leadership,  initiative,  evenness  of  temper,  emotional 
self-control,  physical  self-control,  will  power,  cheerful- 
ness, courage,  sense  of  humor,  obedience,  conscien- 
tiousness, dependability,  intellectual  modesty,  unself- 
ishness,   cooperativeness,    speed,    industry,    personal 
appearance,  popularity  among  fellows,  self-expression, 
accuracy. 

Mental-age  differences.  The  ages  extended  from 
5  years  7  months  to  11  years,  a  range  of  nearly  5| 
years.  The  mental-age  range  is  even  greater;  namely, 
from  3  years  to  practically  11  years.  The  highest 
mental  age  among  these  first-grade  pupils  considerably 
overlaps  the  lowest  we  have  found  in  the  eighth  grade. 
The  number  at  each  mental  age  is  shown  in  Figure  13. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    45 


3456789  10 

2%  15.4%      20.8%       34.2%       21.5%         4%          1.3%         .67% 

FIG.  13.  MENTAL-AGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  149  FIRST-GRADE 
CHILDREN 


Mental  age  necessary  for  first-grade  work.  Chil- 
dren are  expected  to  start  to  school  at  the  age  of  six 
years.  The  assumption  is  that  the  degree  of  mental 
maturity  corresponding  to  this  age  is  necessary  for 
successful  work  in  the  first  grade.  Is  this  assumption 
justified?  The  question  can  be  answered  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  quality  of  school  work  done  by  the  chil- 
dren of  different  mental  ages.  The  agreement  be- 
tween mental  age  and  the  ratings  for  quality  of  work 
done  is  shown  in  Table  4. 

It  is  evident  from  this  table  that  mental  age  is  a 
fairly  good  index  of  a  child's  ability  to  do  the  work 
of  the  first  grade.  No  child  below  the  mental  age  of 
6  years  is  rated  as  doing  school  work  above  the  aver- 
age, while  of  the  22  pupils  rated  as  "very  inferior"  in 


46      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Mental  Age 

Quality  of  school  work 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1   / 

Total 

9-6  —  up  

3 

3 

9-0  to  9-  5 

8-6  to  8-11 

1 

1 
1 
7 
3 
1 

1 

2 

3 

2 
4 
6 
26 
30 
21 
17 
14 
17 
9 

8-0  to  8-  5  

1 

5 
10 
18 
14 

7 
4 

2 

7-6  to  7-11 

7-0  to  7-  5 

6 
9 
6 

7 
6 

7 
2 

6-6  to  6-11       

6-0  to  6-  5  

5-6  to  5-11  7 

3 

4 
8 

7 

5-0  to  5-  5 

4-6  to  4-11 

—  to  4-  5 

Total 

22 

44 

60 

14 

9 

149 

TABLE  4.    SHOWING  HOW  QUALITY  OP  WORK  IN  THE  FIRST  GRADE 
DEPENDS  UPON  MENTAL  AGE.    (Correlation  .725) 

school  work,  all  are  below  the  mental  age  of  6.  The 
agreement,  however,  is  not  perfect.  Of  the  41  children 
who  are  mentally  7  years  or  above,  7  are  rated  as  doing 
"inferior"  work.  All  but  2  of  these  are  enrolled  in 
rooms  D  and  E,  where  the  average  mental  age  of  the 
pupils  is  unusually  high.  The  inference  is  that  teach- 
ers have  judged  these  pupils  by  too  high  a  standard  of 
performance.  If  placed  in  room  A  probably  any  one 
of  them  would  rank  average  or  above. 

On  the  other  hand,  13  of  the  92  pupils  below  the 
mental  age  of  6'  years  are  rated  as  doing  school  work 
of  "  average  "  quality.  A  satisfactory  explanation  was 
found  in  every  case.  Two  of  the  13  were  repeaters, 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    47 

one  of  whom  was  10  years  old  and  had  been  in  school 
over  two  years.  Under  the  circumstances  they  would 
naturally  be  expected  to  do  average  work,  even  though 
they  are  slightly  below  the  mental  level  of  6  years 
The  other  11  were  all  enrolled  in  classes  A  and  B,  in 
both  of  which  the  average  mental  age  was  extraordi- 
narily low.  In  room  A,  13  of  the  38  pupils  were  below 
the  mental  age  of  5f  years,  and  in  Room  B  18  out  of  39. 
The  11  pupils  whose  ratings  are  in  question  averaged 
in  mental  age  5  years  and  10  months.  It  is  therefore 
not  surprising  that  then*  school  work  should  have 
been  rated  as  average  in  an  inferior  class. 

From  such  data  as  the  above,  collected  from  all  his 
1000  cases,  Dickson  concludes  that  below  the  mental 
age  of  6  years  the  child  is  not  fully  ready  for  the  first 
grade,  and  that  below  the  mental  age  of  5j  years  the 
chances  that  really  standard  first-grade  work  will  be 
done  are  practically  negligible.  We  are  beginning  to 
see  why  a  fourth  of  the  pupils  in  the  first  grade  fail  of 
promotion,  for  Dickson  find  s_ 38.  per  cent  below  the 
mental  age  of  6  years,  and ^2.  per  cent  below  5  J. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  in  the  first  grade  many 
pupils  of  the  other  extreme  of  ability  who  are  kept  at 
work  which  is  too  easy  to  command  their  best  efforts. 
Of  the  150  children,  15  (10  per  cent)  are  above  the 
mental  age  of  7J  years.  All  of  these,  and  in  addition 
perhaps  half  of  the  26  who  tested  between  7  and  7?, 
could  quickly  be  made  ready  for  the  second  grade. 
By  the  present  regime  these  are  injured  no  less  than 
the  inferiors. 


48      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

The  influence  of  age  on  the  ability  to  do  school  work. 
The  one  condition  that  the  school  imposes  upon  those 
who  would  enter  is  that  they  shall  have  passed  a  given 
birthday.  If  the  age  criterion  were  adequate  we  should 
invariably  find  the  best  records  in  the  first  grade  made 
by  the  oldest  pupils,  and  the  poorest  records  by  the 
youngest  pupils.  The  reverse  is  the  case.  Of  the 
39  pupils  who  were  above  the  chronological  age  of  7j 
years,  only  3  were  rated  above  average  in  quality  of 
school  work;  of  the  10  who  had  reached  the  age  of  8^ 
years,  none.  Conversely,  of  the  23  who  were  rated 
above  average  in  quality  of  work,  12  were  under  6j 
years  and  20  were  under  7j  years,  chronologically. 

This  finding  is  not  new.  Every  one  who  has  given 
mental  tests  to  any  considerable  number  of  school 
children  has  found  that  the  best  pupils  in  a  given  grade 
are  almost  invariably  the  youngest;  the  poorest  pupils, 
the  oldest.  In  the  present  instance  this  is  true,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  most  of  the  older  pupils  are 
taking  the  work  for  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  time. 
Some,  in  fact,  had  started  to  school  before  their  young- 
est classmates  were  born. 

Does  age  give  any  advantage  whatever  apart  from 
the  degree  of  mental  maturity  which  has  been  attained, 
or  does  school  success  depend  entirely  upon  mental  age, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  is  influenced  by  such  extraneous 
factors  as  industry,  illness,  emotional  instability,  etc.  ? 

Dickson  attempted  to  answer  this  question  by 
comparing  the  quality  of  school  work  done  by  older 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    49 

(dull)  pupils  and  the  younger  (bright)  pupils  of  the 
same  mental  age.  For  the  comparison  he  took  two 
groups  of  pupils,  all  of  whose  mental  ages  were  be- 
tween 6  and  7  years.  The  pupils  of  one  of  these  groups 
were  also  chronologically  between  6  and  7  years,  with 
I  Q's  ranging  between  96  and  105.  The  pupils  of  the 
other  group  were  between  8.  and  9  years  chronologi- 
cally, with  I  Q's  ranging  from  72  to  84.  The  average 
mental  age  in  the  two  groups  was  almost  exactly  the 
same.  The  comparison  gave  for  the  older  group  an 
average  rating  of  3.7  in  school  work;  for  the  younger 
group,  an  average  rating  of  3.12.  Since  on  our  five- 
step  scale  of  rating,  3  means  "average"  and  2  means 
"superior,"  it  is  seen  that  there  is  a  difference  of  more 
than  a  half -step  in  favor  of  the  younger  group.  The 
significance  of  this  finding  is  enhanced  by  the  fact 
that  the  older  group  had  attended  school  for  an  av- 
erage period  of  1.9  years,  the  younger  for  an  average 
period  of  less  than  one  year.  The  older  group  has 
two  years  the  advantage  in  age,  with  all  the  inciden- 
tal experience  which  age  brings,  and  in  addition  the 
advantage  of  a  year  more  of  school  attendance;  nev- 
ertheless their  work  is  less  satisfactory  than  that  of 
the  younger  pupils  who  are  at  the  same  level  of  men- 
tal age.  We  have  found  this  to  be  the  rule  in  a 
number  of  similar  comparisons.  The  additional  spon- 
taneity and  adaptability  of  young  normal  pupils 
slightly  outweigh  the  advantage  of  the  additional 
experience  and  schooling  which  older  pupils  of  the 
same  mental  age  have  enjoyed. 


50      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


The  distribution  of  I  Q's.  The  range  of  I  Q's  for 
the  150  pupils  is  45  to  145.  The  median  I  Q  is  88,  and 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  brightest  child  and  the 
dullest  child  are  about  equidistant  from  the  median. 
The  lowest  25  per  cent  fall  to  77  or  below,  the  highest 
25  per  cent  reach  124  or  above.  Figure  14  shows  the 
distribution  of  intelligence  quotients  grouped  in  ranges 
of  ten:  40  to  49,  50  to  59,  60  to  69,  etc. 


_rfl 


40-50-60-   70-   80-   90-   100-  110-  120-   130-  140- 
49    59    69    79    89*   99    109   119   129  -  139   149 

.7%     4.7%     8.7%  18.8%  20.1%  14.1%  16.8%   8.7%    4.7%     1.3%    1.3% 

FIG.  14.  I  Q  DISTRIBUTION  OF  149  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN 


The  low  median  I Q  might  be  due  either  to  real  aver- 
age inferiority  of  the  pupils  tested  or  to  a  defect  of  the 
scale  causing  it  to  yield  mental  ages  too  low.  That  the 
latter  is  not  the  true  explanation  is  indicated  by  the 
high  average  I  Q  (107)  earned  by  Miss  Cuneo's  kinder- 
garten children,  who  were  tested  on  almost  exactly  the 
same  part  of  the  scale.1  All  the  supplementary  data 

1  Stanford-Binet  tests  of  more  than  2300  children  in  the  kin- 
dergarten and  primary  grades  of  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  yielded  an 
average  I  Q  of  99  points,  which  is  within  one  point  of  that  which 
would  be  expected  if  the  scale  were  correctly  standardized. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    51 


confirm  the  test  results  in  showing  that  in  three  of  the 
five  rooms,  enrolling  107  of  the  150  pupils,  there  was 
an  excessive  number  of  children  of  low  mentality. 
Had  only  rooms  D  and  E  been  examined,  the  scale 
would  have  seemed  to  err  in  the  direction  of  too  great 
ease. 

Of  the  150  children,  21  tested  below  70  I  Q  and  12 
below  60.  Those  below  60  may  safely  be  considered 
feeble-minded,  and  probably  a  majority  of  those  be- 
tween 60  and  70.  Most  of  the  low  cases  were  in  two 
rooms. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  the  teachers  were  asked  to 
estimate  the  intelligence  of  each  pupil  on  the  scale  of 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  The  extent  to  which  these  estimates 
agreed  with  the  tests  is  shown  in  Table  5. 


Teachers'  estimates  of  intelligence 

I  O's 

J.  V<  3 

Very  inferior 

Inferior 

Average 

Superior 

Very 
superior 

140-149 

2 

130-139 

i 

1 

120-129 

2 

3 

2 

110-119 

i 

4 

8 

100-109 

5 

20 

90-  99 

4 

17 

80-  89 

4 

15 

11 

70-  79 

8 

19 

1 

60-  69 

3 

8 

2 

50-  59 

5 

2 

40-  49 

1 

•• 

TABLE   5.      AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  THE  TESTS  AND   TEACHERS' 
ESTIMATES  OP  INTELLIGENCE.    (Correlation  .79) 


52      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


The  correlation  in  Table  5  (.79)  is  fairly  high.  By 
a  painstaking  analysis  of  individual  cases  of  disagree- 
ment, Dickson  was  able  to  show  that  most  of  these 
were  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  teachers  to  take  the 
child's  age  into  account.  This  is  an  error  which  we 
have  found  over  and  over,  one  from  which  it  seems 
impossible  for  teachers  to  free  themselves  even  when 
expressly  cautioned  to  do  so,  as  they  were  in  this  case. 
The  child  of  8  years  who  has  a  mental  age  of  6  years 
(I  Q  75)  and  is  doing  almost  average  work  in  the  first 
grade,  is  likely  to  be  rated  not  far  from  average  in  in- 
telligence. The  teacher  forgets  that  an  average  child 
of  8  years  ought  to  be  doing  average  work  in  the  high- 
second  or  low-third  grade. 

How  the  five  classes  differed.  These  five  teachers 
are  expected  to  accomplish  the  same  work,  to  turn  out 
a  similar  product  at  the  end  of  the  year.  A  comparison 
of  the  material  with  which  they  are  working  shows 
that  any  such  expectation  is  impossible  of  realization 
and  unfair  to  the  teachers  and  to  the  children.  Tables 
6  and  7  show  how  greatly  rooms  A,  B,  and  C  differ 
from  rooms  D  and  E  in  the  mental  ages  represented. 


Room 

Median 
Mental  age 

Median  I  Q 

Per  cent 
below  5J 

Per  cent 
above  7 

Per  cent 
repeating 

A 

6-0 

87 

.31 

.10 

.55 

B 

5-7 

76 

.46 

.05 

.35 

C 

6-0 

85 

.20 

.26 

.56 

D 

7-2 

108 

.14 

.60 

.46 

E 

7-8 

112 

.00 

.71 

.07 

TABLE  6.    SIGNIFICANT  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  MENTAL  COMPOSITION 
OF  FIVE  FIRST-GRADE  CLASSES 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    53 


IQ'S 

Room  A 

RoomB 

RoomC 

RoomD 

RoomE 

135-  up 

1 

1 

130-134 

.  . 

i 

1 

125-129 

. 

1 

2 

120-124 

4 

.  . 

115-119 

'i 

2 

3 

2 

110-114 

i 

i 

4 

1 

105-109 

2 

*2 

5 

1 

100-104 

5 

i 

2 

2 

3 

95-  99 

4 

1 

2 

2 

90-  94 

3 

2 

6 

1 

85-  89 

4 

3 

2 

*i 

'   80-  84 

6 

9 

4 

,  75-  79 

6 

4 

3 

'2 

70-  74 

3 

5 

4 

i 

65-  69 

6 

2 

i 

,    60-  64 

i 

3 

Below  60 

2 

4 

2 

•  • 

•'  Median 

87 

76 

85 

108 

112 

TABLE  7.    I  Q  DISTRIBUTION  IN  THE  FIVE  CLASSES 

The  average  mental  age  in  room  E  is  fully  two  years 
above  that  in  room  B,  and  the  median  I  Q  36  points 
higher.  The  average  child  of  room  E  excels  the  aver- 
age child  of  room  B  in  brightness  as  much  as  an  aver- 
age normal  child  of  100  I Q  excels  a  feeble-minded  child 
of  66  I  Q.  Room  A  has  three  pupils  who  grade  feeble- 
minded, room  B  anywhere  from  seven  to  thirteen, 
room  C  two  to  four,  room  D  possibly  one,  and  room  E 
none.  Rooms  A  and  C  have  no  pupils  who  test  as 
high  as  120,  and  room  B  only  one;  but  21.5  per  cent 
of  the  pupils  of  room  D  and  28.6  per  cent  of  those  in 
room  E  grade  this  high  or  higher.  These  differences  in 


54       INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

relative  endowment  are  reflected  in  the  number  of 
repeaters  found  in  the  five  rooms. 

A  third  of  the  pupils  in  room  A  and  hah0  of  those  in 
room  B  are  incapable  of  doing  standard  first-grade 
work.  They  are  not  doing  it.  The  lack  of  progress 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  in  room  B  was  so  evident  that 
the  teacher  was  in  despair  and  the  superintendent 
doubted  her  efficiency.  But  there  was  nothing  wrong 
with  the  teacher.  Her  task  was  simply  impossible. 
On  the  other  hand,  half  the  pupils  of  room  E  have 
reached  a  level  of  mental  development  which  would 
enable  them  to  do  the  work  of  the  second  grad,e;  three 
or  four  of  them,  the  work  of  the  third  grade.  The  lot 
of  this  teacher  is  a  happy  one.  Her  pupils  are  able  to 
learn  without  instruction. 

When  a  class  is  so  far  above  or  below  the  average  in 
ability  we  would  expect  the  teacher  to  be  aware  of  the 
fact.  That  these  teachers  were  only  partially  so  is 
shown  by  the  distribution  of  their  ratings  on  school 
work  in  the  different  classes.  Although  the  teacher  in 
room  B  correctly  rates  the  work  of  her  pupils  very  low, 
the  teacher  of  room  D  rates  (incorrectly)  more  of  her 
pupils  below  than  above  average.  Plainly  her  stand- 
ard is  too  high,  and  it  is  so  because  the  average  menta7 
age  in  her  room  is  above  seven  years.  The  teacher  oi 
room  E  complained  that  six  of  her  fourteen  pupils 
were  not  doing  what  she  would  consider  good  work. 
The  average  mental  age  in  this  class  was  above  7j 
years.  Dickson  estimated  that  "average"  work  in 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    55 

class  E  was  in  reality  better  than  "superior"  work  in 
any  of  the  other  classes.  « 

Sex  differences.  Of  Dickson's  150  subjects,  70 
were  boys  and  71  were  girls.  Only  a  small  difference 
was  found  in  the  I  Q's  of  the  sexes,  the  girls  having  the 
advantage  of  three  points  in  median.  However,  as 
rated  by  the  teachers  for  quality  of  school  work,  the 
girls  made  decidedly  the  better  showing.  This  was 
true  even  when  the  comparison  was  between  boys  and 
girls  of  the  same  mental  age.  Among  the  150  pupils 
were  15  boys  and  11  girls  who  tested  between  95  and 
105  I Q.  The  ages,  mental  ages,  and  the  I  Q's  of  these 
two  groups  were  almost  exactly  the  same,  yet  the  boys 
secured  an  average  rating  of  3.4  (.4  below  "average") ; 
the  girls  an  average  rating  of  2.81  (.19  above  "aver- 
age"). That  is,  boys  of  average  intelligence  may  be 
expected  to  do  less  than  average  school  work,  girls  of 
average  intelligence  to  do  better  than  average  school 
work.  As  stated  by  Dickson,  "It  may  be  that  the 
school  curriculum  is  better  adapted  to  the  needs  and 
interests  of  girls;  that  girls  excel  in  industry  and  appli- 
cation; that  girls  more  willingly  submit  to  direction  in 
a  task;  that  girls  are  better  behaved  than  boys  and 
that  school  marks  are  influenced  by  deportment;  that 
teachers  (all  women)  are  better  suited  to  teaching 
girls  than  boys;  or  it  may  be  any  one  or  a  combination 
of  many  of  the  causes  that  might  be  mentioned." 

Racial  an&araal  differences.  Three  of  the  five 
rooms  (A,^  BC)  contained  a  large  element  of 


56      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Italian  children,  also  a 
number  of  North-European  parentage.  Most  of  these 
were  born  in  the  United  States  and  all  spoke  English. 
The  median  I  Q's  were  as  follows: 

Race  Number  Median  I  Q 

Spanish ^7                78 

Portuguese 23                84 

Italian 25                84 

North-European ...  14              105 

American 49              106 

The  children  were  classified  as  to  social  status  ac- 
cording to  the  occupation  of  the  father.  The  classifica- 
tion was  based  upon  Taussig's  division  of  occupations 
into  five  "non-competing"  groups:  (1)  professional; 
(2)  semi-professional  or  higher  business;  (3)  skilled; 
(4)  semi-skilled;  and  (5)  unskilled.  The  correlation 
between  I  Q  and  the  ratings  on  social  status  was 
found  to  be  .48.  The  median  I  Q  or  classes  4  and 
5  taken  together  was  82.5;  for  classes  1  and  2  taken 
together,  112.5.  Only  one  child  in  class  5  tested  above 
115,  and  only  one  in  classes  1  and  2  below  85.  Two 
thirds  of  these  in  classes  1  and  2  were  above  100,  and 
seven  eighths  of  those  in  classes  4  and  5  below  100. 
However,  bright  children  do  occur  in  the  lower  occu- 
pational groups,  and  when  they  do  they  stand  out  by 
contrast. 

Correlation  between  intelligence  and  other  traits. 
It  will  be  recalled  that  as  a  part  ofAjmpplementary 
data  Dickson  had  the  teachers  M  •Children  on 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    57 

twenty-four  mental  and  moral  traits,  in  addition  to 
intelligence  and  school  work.  The  interest  in  such 
ratings  lies  in  their  bearing  on  the  debated  question 
whether  good  traits  tend  to  go  together  or  whether 
superiority  in  certain  lines  is  likely  to  be  offset  by 
inferiority  in  others.  The  latter  belief  is  called  "the 
theory  of  compensation."  It  is  commonly  thought 
that  the  possession  of  a  number  of  undesirable  traits 
is  almost  certain  to  be  compensated  by  marked  superi- 
ority in  other  traits.  Every  one  knows  that  this  is 
sometimes  true  in  individual  cases.  If  it  were  the  rule, 
however,  there  would  be  negative  correlations  among 
some  of  the  traits,  and  a  given  individual  would  show 
a  great  deal  of  unevenness  in  the  ratings  received. 
Such  negative  correlations  were  not  found.  The 
traits  listed  below  all  correlated  positively  with  intelli- 
gence and  with  one  another.  The  correlations  with 
intelligence  are  shown  in  Table  8  in  order  of  n.mount-3, 
Beginning  with  thfr  highest 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  .spnse  of  finmor.  power 
to  give  sustained  attention,  persistence,  and  initiative 
all  correlatehighlywith  intelligence.  They  probably 
depend  in  large  measure  upon  intelligence.  The  cor- 
relation of  social  adaptability  with  intelligence  is  also 
high,  indicating  that  there  is  little  truth  in  the  theory 
that  bright  children  tend  to  be  socially  queer  or  out- 
casts. The  low  correlation  of  obedience,  unselfish- 
ness, and  emotional  self-control  with  intelligence  are 
of  interest. 


58      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Correlation 
Trait  with  1  Q 

1.  Sense  of  humor 58. 

2.  Power  to  give  sustained  attention 5^ 

3.  Persistence 53 

4.  Initiative 53 

5.  Accuracy 52 

6.  Will  power 50 

7.  Conscientiousness 48 

8.  Social  adaptability 47 

9.  Leadership 44 

10.  Personal  appearance 44 

11.  Cheerfulness 43 

12.  Cooperation 43 

13.  Physical  self-control 42 

14.  Industry 40 

15.  Courage 39 

16.  Dependability 38 

17.  Self-expression  (speech) 37 

18.  Intellectual  modesty 34 

19.  Obedience 34 

20.  Popularity  among  fellows 34 

21.  Evenness  of  temper 31 

22.  Emotional  self-control 29 

23.  Unselfishness 29 

24.  Speed 28 

TABLE  8.     CORRELATION  BETWEEN  I  Q  AND  TEACHERS'  RATINGS 
ON  VARIOUS  MENTAL  AND  MORAL  TRAITS 

As  a  rule,  the  ratings  given  an  individual  child  ran 
fairly  uniform  through  the  list  of  traits.1  Few  children 
showed  numerous  oscillations  from  high  to  low  rat- 
ings. Bright  children  as  a  rule  were  rated  "superior  " 

1  The  precaution  was  taken  of  having  each  teacher  rate  all  her 
children  on  one  trait  before  taking  up  the  next  trait. 


o    V 


tfl 

CO       ^      CD 

•**  3 '  * 


If  I 

•§'§131 

null 

3    S    ®    a    o,   « 


Is       £1 
U  VI  I 


s 

/ 

s 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

s 

/ 

*v» 

^x 

\ 

TING 

CO  10 


Fio.  15.    TYPICAL  "TRAIT  PROFILE "  OF  A  VERY  BRIGHT  CHILD. 
(I  Q  133,  average  rating,  1.34) 


1 

«ina 

3-13: 


S.'S  -a 


I 


5 
&.§• 


V    h 

n 


• 

I    i  i 

s  &  a  oo  § 

8  a  ?  "I  I 

8  I  3  1 1  * 

J  a 


i  ,!tl 

t!    t3 


Ul!!Il!lflJlll!!lil!SJ!i 


7i 


FIG.  16.    TYPICAL  "  TRAIT  PROFILE  "  OF  A  CHILD  OF  AVERAGE 
INTELLIGENCE.     (I  Q  103,  average  rating,  3.04) 


H3 


/\ 


FIQ.  17.    TYPICAL  "  TRAIT  PROFILE  "  OF  A  FEEBLE-MINDED 
CHILD.     (I  Q  45,  average  rating,  4.46) 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    61 

or  "very  superior"  in  nearly  all  traits,  occasionally 
dropping  to  average.  Very  dull  children  as  a  rule  were 
rated  "inferior"  or  "very  inferior"  in  nearly  all  traits, 
occasionally  rising  to  average.  Figures  15, 16,  and  17 
reproduce  from  Dickson's  report  sample  "profiles"  of 
one  bright,  one  dull,  and  one  average  pupil. 

So  marked  was  the  correlation  between  I  Q  and 
average  rating  on  the  twenty-four  traits  that  knowing 
only  the  average  of  these  ratings  one  could  roughly  pre- 
dict what  the  I  Q  would  be.  As  shown  in  Table  9,  the 
correlation  is  .76.  Of  the  ten  pupils  with  an  average 
rating  above  2  (1  being  highest  and  5  lowest),  not  one 
tested  below  110 1  Q.  Of  the  sixteen  with  an  average 
as  low  as  4,  none  tested  as  high  as  100,  and  only  one  as 
high  as  90.  Conversely,  of  the  six  pupils  testing  125 
or  above,  none  had  an  average  rating  below  2.24;  and 
of  the  ten  pupils  testing  below  65,  none  had  an  aver- 
age rating  as  high  as  3.24. 

Predictions  regarding  school  progress.  After  the 
tests  had  been  made  and  all  the  supplementary  data 
had  been  analyzed,  Dickson  made  a  prediction  re- 
garding each  child's  probable  school  progress.  Fol- 
lowing are  samples  of  these  predictions: 

Child  No.  1.  Age  5-10;  mental  age  6-10;  I  Q  117;  school 
work  2;  low-first  grade;  in  school  one-half  year.  Forecast: 
Work  should  continue  superior.  Should  finish  fourth  grade 
in  three  to  three  and  a  half  years. 

Child  No.  15.  Age  6-4;  mental  age  5-7;  I  Q  88;  school 
work  3;  low-first  grade;  in  school  1  year.  Forecast:  Child 


62      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

is  dull  and  quality  of  school  work  will  go  lower.  Present 
rating  of  3  is  explained  by  low  average  standard  in  the 
class.  Will  probably  lose  one  year  before  completing  fourth 
grade. 

Child  No.  21.  Age  8-2;  mental  age  6-8;  I  Q  81;  school 
work  4;  low-first  grade;  in  school  2  years.  Forecast:  Very 
dull,  and  probably  will  not  finish  fifth  grade  by  age  of  four- 
teen years.  Not  suited  to  the  regular  course  of  study. 

Child  No.  35.  Age  10-0;  mental  age  5-1;  I  Q  51;  school 
work  5;  high-first  grade;  in  school  3£  years.  Forecast:  This 
child  will  never  reach  the  fourth  grade.  Should  be  placed 
in  an  institution  for  the  feeble-minded. 

Child  No.  122.  Age  7-6 ;  mental  age  10-1 1 ;  I Q 145 ;  school 
work  1;  high-first  grade;  in  school  \  year.  Forecast:  Should 
be  coached  on  essentials  and  moved  ahead.  May  be  ex- 
pected to  complete  the  fourth  grade  within  2|  years  after 
entering  school  and  is  capable  of  doing  so  in  1|  years. 

Child  No.  117.  Age  7-3,  mental  age  7-4;  I  Q  101;  school 
work  4;  high-first  grade;  in  school  1  year.  Forecast:  This  boy 
is  average  normal,  and  in  an  average  class  would  do  satis- 
factory work  without  repeating.  However,  as  the  average 
I  Q  of  his  class  is  112,  he  is  likely  to  lose  a  half  year  or  more 
before  completing  the  fourth  grade. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  make  predictions.  How  well 
time  will  justify  them  is  another  question.  They  will 
be  checked  annually  as  long  as  the  children  can  be 
followed.  Thus  far  they  have  been  checked  up  once, 
a  year  after  the  tests  were  made.  The  findings  were 
in  the  large  majority  of  cases  in  perfect  agreement 
with  the  forecast.  In  a  number  of  cases  in  which  the 
forecast  was  not  borne  out,  it  could  be  shown  that 
either:  (1)  the  original  supplementary  information  fur- 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    63 

nished  by  the  teacher  was  incorrect  (age  misstated, 
etc.) ;  or  (2)  the  teacher  had  erred  in  promoting  a  child 
who  should  not  have  been  promoted,  or  in  holding  a 
child  back  who  should  have  been  allowed  to  go  on. 

The  retarded  group.  Of  the  150  pupils,  33  were 
retarded,  according  to  the  Ayres  standard.  Dickson 
examined  the  data  regarding  these  33  children  with  a 
view  to  discovering  the  causes  of  their  retardation. 
The  retarded  group  was  divided  into  three  classes: 
(1)  those  showing  late  entrance;  (2)  those  who  entered 
at  normal  age  but  progressed  slowly;  and  (3)  children 
showing  both  late  entrance  and  slow  progress.  The 
facts  regarding  these  three  classes  are  stated  by  Dick- 
son  as  follows : 

1.  Late  entrance.     "Of  the  five  children  who  show  late 
entrance,  only  one  has  normal  mental  ability  (I  Q  99).     She 
has  made  regular  progress  since  entering  school  and  is  now 
doing  work  of  average  quality.    The  remaining  four  are  sub- 
normal children  mentally,  belonging  either  in  the  feeble- 
minded or  in  the  border-zone  group.     The  very  fact  that 
these  four  children  have  a  low  mental  level  is  the  most  prob- 
able cause  of  their  retardation." 

2.  Normal  entrance,  slow  progress.     "Eighteen  children 
show  entrance  at  normal  age,  but  slow  progress.     All  of 
these  are  repeaters,  several  for  the  third  or  fourth  time.    The 
mental  level  of  each  one  is  low.     Four  are  probably  feeble- 
minded, the  rest  would  classify  in  the  border-zone  or  in  the 
dull-normal  groups.     Only  one  (I  Q  91.7)  even  approaches 
the  average  normal  mental  level." 

3.  Both  late  entrance  and  slow  progress.     "Ten  children 
show  both  late  entrance  and  slow  progress.     Eight  of  these 
have  low  mentality;  one  has  a  mental  level  approaching  the 


64      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

normal  (91  I  Q)  and  is  now  doing  average  work;  one  has  a 
normal  level  (97  I  Q)  and  the  facts  at  hand  do  not  suggest 
any  cause  of  retardation." 

/  "Of  the  33  retarded  children,  only  £  have  normal  mentality 
as  shown  by  the  tests.  Stated  in  another  way,  93.9  per  cent  of 
all  the  retardation  in  these  five  rooms  is  found  in  children  of  low 
mental  level.  While  there  may  be  contributory  causes,  low 
mentality  is  undoubtedly  the  chief  cause  of  retardation  in  these 
five  rooms  of  first-grade  children." 

Feasibility  of  testing  all  first-grade  children.  The 
first  task  of  the  school  when  it  gathers  its  newcomers 
together  should  be  to  give  each  child  a  mental  test  to 
determine  the  nature  of  his  endowment.  The  test 
should  then  be  checked  up  by  a  large  amount  of  sup- 
plementary data  and  by  an  annual  appraisement  of 
progress. 

Granting  the  desirability  of  giving  every  child  in 
the  first  grade  a  mental  test,  is  it  possible  to  do  so? 
One  is  tempted  to  answer  that  it  is  possible  because  it 
is  necessary.  Each  teacher  may  very  well  test  her 
own  pupils,  or,  if  it  is  preferred,  all  the  testing  may  be 
done  by  a  few  teachers  who  have  had  special  training 
for  such  work.  The  latter  plan  has  been  followed 
in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  where  during  a  single 
school  year  almost;  1000  first-grade  pupils  were  tested 
by  teachers  specially  detailed  for  the  task.  It  is  re- 
ported that  the  experiment  has  been  a  great  success; 
that  the  tests  showed  clearly  why  a  third  of  their  pu- 
pils were  failing  of  promotion  in  the  first  grade.  As 
a  result  of  the  experiment  the  course  of  study  for  the 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIRST-GRADE  CHILDREN    65 

first  year  was  differentiated,  and  the  mentally  imma- 
ture pupils  were  given  work  of  a  pre-primary  nature. 
In  the  schools  of  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  all  the  pupils 
of  the  kindergarten  and  primary  grades  are  tested, 
and  entrance  to  the  first  grade  from  the  kindergarten 
is  based  entirely  upon  mental  age.4 


CHAPTER  V 

INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FIFTH  GRADE  * 

HUBBARD  investigated  the  amount  of  heterogeneity 
in  the  classes  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  grades  of 
the  Alameda  public  schools.  The  study  took  into 
account  age,  race,  sex,  social  status,  achievement  as 
shown  by  school  marks,  educational  measurements 
and  teachers'  ratings  on  intelligence.  Data  were 
secured  from  approximately  2000  pupils.  Such  wide 
ranges  of  individual  differences  were  found  that  it  was 
decided  to  select  two  classes  in  the  fifth  grade  for  more 
intensive  study  by  means  of  the  Stanford-Binet  tests. 
The  two  classes  were  chosen  at  random.  One  enrolled 
38,  the  other  41  pupils. 

Extent  of  differences.  The  mental  ages,  ages,  and 
I  Q's  found  in  the  two  classes  are  shown  in  Table  10. 

The  individual  differences  revealed  in  Table  10 
are  enormous  and  startling.  Class  A  has  an  age 
range  from  9|  to  almost  14  years;  class  B,  from  9j 
to  almost  15  years.  This  would  not  be  so  serious  if 
all  were  of  approximately  equal  mental  ability.  Such 
equality  was  conspicuously  lacking.  The  pupils  of 
class  A  ranged  in  mental  age  from  less  than  10  years 
to  more  than  15  years;  those  of  class  B,  from  7f  years 
to  14  years.  Two  pupils  of  class  A  have  reached  a 
1  Written  with  the  assistance  of  O.  S.  Hubbard. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIFTH-GRADE  CHILDREN    67 


Class  A 

i    '., 

Class  B 

Pupil 

Mental  age 

Age 

IQ 

Pupil 

Mental  age 

Age 

IQ 

1 

'lo-  3 

11-  8 

130, 

1 

Xf4^  0 

11-  2 

125 

2 

15-  0 

10-  2 

148? 

2 

13-10 

9-  7 

144 

3 

14-  3 

9-  8 

147? 

3 

12-  3 

11-  5 

108  f 

4 

14-  0 

11-  9 

119? 

4 

12-  2 

10-10 

113  < 

5 

13-  8 

11-  6 

119? 

5 

11-11 

10-  2 

118" 

6 

13-  7 

12-  1 

1121 

6 

11-  4 

13-  0 

87 

7 

13-  6 

10-  7 

128  1 

7 

11-  2 

13-  7 

82 

8 

13-  3 

11-  1 

120> 

8 

11-  0 

10-  6 

105 

9 

13-  2 

10-  6 

1287 

9 

11-  0 

11-  5 

96 

10 

12-11 

12-  1 

107 

10 

10-11 

14-10 

74C* 

11 

12-  9 

11-  9 

109 

11 

10-10 

10-  5 

104 

12 

12-  8 

9-  6 

133. 

12 

10-  9 

11-  9 

91 

13 

12-  6 

10-  6 

119 

13 

10-  8 

10-  7 

100 

"14 

12-  6 

10-11 

115, 

14 

10-  8 

11-  0 

97 

15 

12-  4 

10-  9 

115 

15 

10-  8 

10-  8 

100 

16 

12-  3 

11-  2 

no  ;, 

16 

10-  7 

13-  3 

80 

17 

12-  3 

10-  6 

117- 

17 

10-  5 

12-  6 

83 

18 

12-  3 

13-  5 

91 

18 

10-  4 

10-  5 

99 

19 

12-  0 

10-  6 

115 

19 

10-  2 

10-10 

94 

20 

12-  0 

10-  2 

118,- 

20 

10-  2 

10-11 

93 

21 

11-11 

11-  8 

102 

21 

10-  2 

11-  2 

91 

22 

11-11 

10-  8 

112; 

22 

10-  2 

11-  6 

88  4 

23 

11-10 

12-  1 

98 

23 

10-  1 

10-  1 

100 

21 

11-  8 

11-  7 

101 

24 

10-  1 

10-  4 

98 

25 

11-  4 

10-  2 

111 

25 

10-  1 

11-  8 

86  * 

2G 

11-  4 

10-  7 

107 

26 

10-  0 

11-  7 

86^ 

27 

11-  4 

14-  0 

81  - 

27 

10-  0 

11-  0 

91  3 

28 

11-  3 

10-  3 

105 

28 

9-10 

10-  5 

94 

29 

11-  2 

13-10 

8l-v 

29 

9-10 

12-  4 

80  * 

30 

11-  0 

11-  5 

96 

30 

9-  9 

10-  8 

91  -? 

31 

11-  0 

12-  4 

89 

31 

9-  6 

11-  4 

84  4 

32 

11-  0 

12-  4 

89 

32 

9-  4 

13-  9 

68* 

33 

10-11 

11-  8 

93 

33 

9-  3 

15-  4 

60  £ 

34 

10-  5 

11-11 

87 

34 

9-  0 

14-  7 

62)1 

35 

10-  5 

13-  5 

78 

35 

9-  0 

10-  2 

893 

36 

10-  4 

10-  4 

100 

36 

9-  0 

12-8 

71  K. 

37 

10-  1 

10-10 

934 

37 

8-  8 

10-  7 

82^ 

38 

10-  1 

10-11 

92+ 

38 

7-  9 

13-  0 

60* 

39 

10-  1 

12-  0 

844 

/ 

40 

10-  0 

11-  3 

89* 

/ 

41 

9-11 

«£ 

10-  0 

99 

TABLE  10. 


AGES,  MENTAL  AGES,  AND  I  Q's  OF  PUPILS  IN  Two 
FIFTH-GRADE  CLASSES 


68      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

stage  of  mental  development  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  average  pupil  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school. 
Either  of  these  pupils  could  by  six  months'  appropriate 
training  be  prepared  to  do  good  high-school  work.  In 
the  normal  course  of  events  they  will  not  reach  high 
school  for  three  and  a  half  years.  At  least  two  pupils 
in  each  class  are  mentally  equal  to  eighth-grade  work. 
Almost  exactly  half  of  the  pupils  of  class  A  are  men- 
tally ripe  for  promotion  to  the  sixth  grade,  at  least, 
and  one  fourth  are  ready  for  the  seventh  grade.  Two 
months  of  appropriate  training  would  doubtless  fit 
them  for  such  promotion. 

On  the  other  hand,  class  A  contains  eight  pupils  and 
class  B  fourteen  pupils  who  are  at  the  fourth-grade 
level  of  mental  development  (9|  to  lOj  years);  while 
Class  B  contains  seven  who  probably  belong  in  the 
third  grade.  One  of  the  latter,  a  pupil  of  13  years,  has 
a  mental  age  below  8  and  belongs  more  nearly  in  the 
high  second  grade.  Taking  the  two  classes  together 
we  find  all  levels  of  ability  represented  from  that  nor- 
mal in  the  second  grade  to  that  normal  in  the  first  year 
of  high  school. 

Consider  for  a  moment  the  contrast  between  the 
brightest  and  dullest  pupil  in  each  class.  In  class  A 
the  highest  I  Q  is  148;  the  lowest,  78.  In  class  B  the 
highest  is  144;  the  lowest,  60.  A  child  in  the  140  I  Q 
class  should  be  able  to  attain  marked  success  in  one 
of  the  learned  professions,  but  all  the  refinements  of 
educational  method  are  incapable  of  bringing  a  child 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIFTH-GRADE  CHILDREN    69 

of  60  I  Q  to  the  level  of  seventh-grade  ability.  If 
both  should  remain  in  school  the  former  will  be  win- 
ning Phi  Beta  Kappa  honors  at  college  graduation 
while  the  latter  is  still  struggling  with  simple  fractions 
or  long  division.  The  difference  between  140  I  Q  and 
60 1 Q  is  80  points.  The  difference  between  an  average 
child  and  a  high-grade  idiot,  who  will  never  develop 
beyond  three  years,  is  also  about  80  points.  In  the 
former  case,  we  do  not  think  of  the  contrast  as  being 
so  great  because  our  perception  of  intellectual  differ- 
ences in  the  upper  ranges  is  much  less  acute  than  for 
the  lower  ranges.  We  are  on  guard  against  stupidity; 
we  often  fail  to  recognize  superiority. 
•  Table  10  shows  the  usual  relationship  found  between 
chronological  age  and  mental  age  in  a  given  grade. 
Low  mental  age  goes  with  high  chronological  age,  and 
low  chronological  age  with  high  mental  age.  Express- 
ing it  differently,  the  lowest  I  Q's  are  possessed  by  the 
oldest  pupils,  the  highest  I  Q's  by  the  youngest.  In 
class  A  the  third  highest  mental  age  belongs  to  the 
next  to  the  youngest  pupil.  In  class  B  the  second 
highest  mental  age  is  that  of  the  youngest  pupil. 

The  two  classes  contrasted.  Considered  as  two 
groups  which  are  expected  to  cover  the  same  work  in 
a  given  time,  class  A  and  class  B  present  a  striking 
contrast.  In  class  A,  44  per  cent  of  the  I  Q's  are  110 
or  above;  in  class  B,  only  10  per  cent.  In  class  A,  19 
per  cent  of  the  I  Q's  are  below  90;  in  class  B,  44  per 
cent.  In  class  A  the  median  I  Q  is  108,  in  class  B,  91. 


70      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

The  median  mental  age  in  class  B  is  slightly  over  10 
years;  that  in  class  A,  slightly  under  12  years.  In 
other  words,  the  median  mental  ability  of  class  A  cor- 
responds to  that  normal  to  the  sixth  grade;  the  median 
of  class  B  to  that  normal  for  the  fourth  grade.  Ten 
per  cent  of  the  pupils  of  class  B  test  below  70;  in  class 
A,  none.  In  class  B  only  10  per  cent  of  the  pupils  test 
as  high  as  110;  in  class  A,  49  per  cent.  As  would  be 
expected,  the  two  classes  presented  an  entirely  differ- 
ent picture.  The  pupils  of  class  A  were  interested, 
alert,  and  above  the  average  in  industry;  those  of 
class  B  inert  and  unresponsive. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  significance  of  the  I  Q 
the  educational  possibilities  of  these  pupils  can  be 
predicted  with  a  fair  degree  of  assurance.  Approxi- 
mately 15  or  20  per  cent  of  the  pupils  of  class  B  will 
never,  with  any  amount  of  instruction,  be  able  to  do  the 
work  of  the  eighth  grade  satisfactorily,  and  50  per  cent 
are  too  inferior  in  endowment  ever  to  complete  a 
four-year  course  in  the  average  American  high  school. 
Of  class  A,  close  to  80  per  cent  should  be  able  to  gradu- 
ate from  a  high  school. 

Necessity  of  an  absolute  standard  of  comparison. 
The  teachers  of  these  two  classes  were  not  far  from 
equal  in  ability,  training,  and  devotion  to  their  work. 
Both  were  above  average.  Surely,  one  would  suppose, 
they  must  have  been  keenly  aware  of  the  intellectual 
composition  of  their  classes.  They  were  not,  except 
in  the  vaguest  sort  of  way.  Each  teacher  knew  that 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIFTH-GRADE  CHILDREN    71 

she  had  some  bright  and  some  dull  pupils.  How 
bright  or  how  dull  was  not  known.  Each  teacher 
could  rate  her  pupils  only  by  comparing  them  with 
others  in  the  same  class.  The  teachers'  classification 
of  the  pupils  into  the  usual  five  groups,  very  superior, 
superior,  average,  inferior,  and  very  inferior,  gave  the 

following  results: 

Class  A  Class  B 

(per  cent)         (per  cent) 

Very  superior 2.6  0.0 

Superior 15.7  5.2 

Average 63.1  76.3 

Inferior 15.7  13.1 

Very  inferior 2.6  5.2 

Although  the  number  rated  above  average  is  much 
larger  in  class  A  than  in  class  B,  as  it  should  be,  the 
number  rated  below  average  is  exactly  the  same  in  the 
two  classes,  namely,  18.3  per  cent.  The  teacher  of 
class  B  did  not  know  that  her  pupils  averaged  nearly  a 
year  below  fifth-grade  ability,  nor  did  the  teacher  of 
class  A  know  that  her  pupils  averaged  a  year  above. 
Neither  teacher  suspected  that  her  class  covered  a 
range  of  four  or  five  years  in  mental  ability.  In  both 
classes  the  significance  of  over-ageness  and  under- 
ageness  had  been  overlooked,  for  over-age  pupils  had 
been  consistently  rated  too  high  and  the  under-age 
pupils  too  low  by  each  teacher.  It  had  not  occurred 
to  the  teacher  of  class  B  that  a  high-school  education 
was  out  of  the  question  for  half  of  her  pupils.  Even 
if  she  had  stopped  to  consider  the  fact  that  several  of 


72      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

her  pupils  were  three  or  four  years  over-age  for  the 
grade,  how  could  she  have  known  that  this  retardation 
would  not  be  made  up  later? 

The  intelligence  tests  confirmed  by  other  data.  The 
contrast  between  the  two  classes  as  shown  by  the  intel- 
ligence tests  is  confirmed  by  the  Courtis  tests,  the 
Stone  Reasoning  test,  and  the  Ayres  Spelling  test. 
Following  are  the  median  scores  of  each  class  in  these 
tests  and  the  median  scores  in  the  same  tests  for  all 
the  fifth-grade  classes  of  the  city  taken  together. 

Class  A  Class  B  Entire  city 

Addition 7.20  3.16  4.98 

Subtraction 8.12  2.80  4.81 

Multiplication .....  5  A3  1.75  3.56 

Division 3.66  0.00  2.63 

Reasoning 2.56  1.72  1.73 

Spelling 80.  73.75  74.10 

In  the  four  fundamentals  and  in  reasoning  the  aver- 
age difference  between  the  classes  amounts  to  more 
than  two  grades.  The  difference  in  spelling  is  consid- 
erably less. 

Retardation  and  acceleration.  If  we  use  the  Ayres 
standard  and  call  a  pupil  retarded  who  is  in  the  fifth 
grade  and  12  or  more  years  old,  then  a  fourth  of  the 
pupils  of  class  A  and  29  per  cent  of  the  pupils  of  class  B 
are  retarded.  This  is  a  rather  liberal  standard.  If 
we  use  11 J  years  instead  of  12  as  a  basis  for  figuring 
retardation  in  the  fifth  grade,  the  amount  is  increased 
to  41.5  per  cent  in  class  A  and  to  37  per  cent  in  class  B. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  FIFTH-GRADE  CHILDREN    73 

The  normal  mental  age  in  the  fifth  grade  is  11  years. 
Below  10|  a  pupil  cannot  ordinarily  be  expected  to  do 
satisfactory  work.  Of  the  eleven  over-age  pupils  in 
Class  B  (i.e.,  over  12  years  of  age),  only  two  are  as 
high  as  12  years,  mentally,  and  seven  are  below  10| 
mentally.  Five  are  at  the  third-grade  level  of  mental 
ability.  On  the  basis  of  mental  age  not  a  single  pupil 
in  this  class  is  retarded,  but  seven  are  accelerated. 
Five  of  these  are  accelerated  fully  two  years.  The 
median  I  Q  of  the  eleven  over-age  pupils  is  74. 

Of  the  ten  pupils  in  class  A  who  are  over-age  (above 
12),  only  three  are  as  much  as  12  mentally.  Of  the 
remaining  seven,  five  are  correctly  located  according 
to  mental  age  and  two  are  a  full  §rade  accelerated. 

Again  we  see  that  the  chief  cause  of  retardation  is  not 
irregular  attendance,  the  use  of  a  foreign  language  in 
the  home,  bad  teeth,  adenoids,  malnutrition,  etc.,  but 
inferior  mental  endowment.  Educational  reform  may 
as  well  abandon,  once  for  all,  the  effort  to  bring  all 
children  up  to  grade. 

We  have  just  seen  that  the  over-age  pupils  were,  on 
the  basis  of  mental  age,  really  accelerated.  Turning 
now  to  the  under-age  pupils,  we  find  that  these  are 
the  real  retardates.  Class  B  has  one  pupil  and  class  A 
has  two  pupils  who  are  less  than  10  years  in  chrono- 
logical age.  Their  mental  ages  are  14-3,  13-10,  and 
12-8.  Two  of  the  three  are  mentally  ripe  for  the  eighth 
grade,  the  other  for  the  seventh.  The  "accelerates  " 
are  in  fact  badly  retarded.  It  is  always  so.  We  can- 


74      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

not  too  often  repeat  that  the  retardation  problem  is 
exactly  the  reverse  of  what  it  is  commonly  supposed 
to  be.  On  the  basis  of  chronological  age,  class  A,  with 
24.4  per  cent  of  its  pupils  above  12  years,  makes  a 
better  showing  than  class  B,  with  29  per  cent  above 
12  years.  On  the  basis  of  mental  age,  however,  49  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  of  class  A  are  retarded,  as  contrasted 
with  10.5  per  cent  of  class  B. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  mental  hygiene  the  con-  * 
ditions  in  the  two  classes,  while  different,  are  almost 
equally  unsatisfactory.  Class  A  has  49  per  cent  above 
the  standard  mental  age  for  the  grade;  class  B  has  76.5 
per  cent  below.  The  49-  per  cent  of  class  A  find  the 
work  too  easy;  most  of  the  76  per  cent  of  class  B  have 
a  constant  struggle  to  keep  their  heads  above  water. 
For  both  conditions,  the  educational  lock-step,  with 
its  tendency  to  promote  by  the  calendar,  is  responsible. 
Reform  will  have  to  be  based  upon  a  consideration  of 
individual  differences  measured  by  mental  and  educa- 
tional tests. 


CHAPTER  VI 

INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FIRST  YEAR  OF 
HIGH  SCHOOL* 

NOTING  that  a  third  or  more  of  the  pupils  who  enter 
high  school  do  not  remain  to  begin  the  second  year  of 
work,  Proctor  decided  to  attack  the  problem  at  its 
most  critical  point  by  investigating  the  abilities  of 
first-year  students.  The  aim  of  the  study  was  (1)  to 
find  how  greatly  first-year  pupils  differ  in  intelligence; 
(2)  to  trace  the  dependence  of  school  success  upon 
intelligence  as  measured  by  the  tests;  (3)  to  find  what 
relation  exists  between  intelligence  and  elimination; 
and  (4)  to  investigate  the  possible  value  of  intelligence 
tests  in  educational  and  vocational  guidance. 

All  the  pupils  who  entered  the  Palo  Alto,  California, 
High  School  during  the  school  year  1916-17  were  given 
a  Stanford-Binet  test.  The  number  in  this  group  was 
in?^  The  testing  was  continued  the  following  year, 
in  part  with  the  Stanford-Binet  and  in  part  by  the 
use  of  a  modified  form  of  the  Otis  Group  Scale.  Alto- 
gether, intelligence  measurements  were  made  of  ap- 
proximately 850  firj5t-year  pupils  in  seven  different 
high  schoolsTand^of  250  pupils  in  the  eighth  grade. 

The  purpose  of  the  study  was  not  merely  to  discover 
individual  differences,  but  also  to  discover  what  bear- 
1  Written  with  the  assistance  of  W.  M.  Proctor. 


76      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

ing  these  have  upon  educational  guidance.  It  was 
therefore  necessary  to  check  up  the  test  results  in  as 
many  ways  as  possible.  Supplementary  data  secured 
at  the  time  the  tests  were  given  included  nationality, 
age,  school  marks  in  all  the  subjects,  vocational  ambi- 
tion, occupation  of  father,  and  teachers'  estimates  of 
intelligence.  What  was  still  more  important,  Proctor 
followed  up  the  cases  over  a  period  of  two  years,  in 
order  to  note  any  changes  that  might  occur  in  the  qual- 
ity of  the  school  work  and  to  correlate  school  success 
with  the  test  results.1 

As  typical  of  his  findings  we  will  present  in  this 
chapter  some  of  the  results  of  the  Stanford-Binet  tests 
of  137  pupils  who  had  just  entered  the  Palo  Alto  High 
School.  In  every  respect  the  results  secured  by  the 
Binet  tests  were  closely  paralleled  by  the  group  meas- 
urements of  more  than  700  additional  pupils. 

Age  differences.  The  age  range  was  from  JS^OJo 
19-3,  with  a  median  of  14-11.  The  median  age  for  a 
thousand  unselected  pupils  entering  New  York  High 
Schools  was  14-5;  the  median  for  1042  in  Iowa  City, 
14-9.  While  these  age  differences  are  of  interest,  they 
do  not  necessarily  furnish  ground  for  criticism  of  school 
grading.  Far  from  maintaining  that  children  ought 
to  be  graded  more  by  age  than  they  are,  it  is  one  of 
the  main  purposes  of  this  book  to  show  that  grading  is 

1  The  investigation  is  one  of  the  most  serious  attempts  yet  made 
to  analyze  the  material  with  which  high  schools  work.  Professor 
Proctor's  book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  high-school  teacher. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     77 

based  too  much  upon  age.  As  will  be  seen  presently, 
the  oldest  of  these  pupils  are  mentally  far  below  the 
ability  necessary  for  success  in  the  first  year  of  high 
school,  while  the  youngest  are  invariably  retarded  one 
or  more  grades  below  the  level  of  their  mentality. 

Mental  age  differences.  In  our  discussion  of  mental 
ages  of  high-school  pupils  it  is  necessary  to  point  out 
that  mental  ages  secured  by  the  Stanford-Binet  above 
14  or  15  years  have  something  of  an  arbitrary  mean- 
ing. No  one  knows  exactly  what  median  intelligence 
is  for  the  ages  15,  16,  17,  etc.,  because  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  secure  unselected  subjects  above 
14  years.  By  that  age  the  pupils  of  inferior  ability 
begin  to  drop  out  of  school.  Accordingly,  when  we 
speak  .of  the  mental  age,  16,  17,  etc.,  we  are  using 
these  figures  rather  as  scores  than  as  mental  ages  in 
the  literal  sense.  We  simply  know  that  16  denotes  a 
higher  mental  level  than  15,  17  higher  than  16,  18 
higher  than  17.  With  this  understanding,  however, 
we  will  continue  to  employ  the  term  mental  age  as  in 
preceding  chapters. 

The  mental  age  scores  of  the  137  high-school  fresh- 
men ranged  from  12-8  to  19-6,  the  latter  being  the 
highest  possible  on  the  Stanford-Binet.  The  lowest 
was  earned  by  a  girl  whose  chronological  age  was  19-3, 
the  highest  by  a  boy  whose  chronological  age  was  13-8. 
Figure  18  shows  the  per  cent  of  total  number  at  each 
mental  age. 

Only  4  of  the  137  pupils  were  below  the  mental  age 


78      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

of  13  J  years.  All  of  these  were  over-age  ("retarded ") 
pupils.  It  appears  that  but  for  the  tendency  of  teach- 
ers to  promote  on  the  basis  of  age,  rather  than  on  the 


J 

12              13             14              15             16             17             18               19 

1-5%         7.4%        23.3%       23.3%      21.9%       13.1%        8.2%          2.2% 

FIG.  18.  MENTAL-AGE  DISTRIBUTION  OP  137  FIRST- YEAR  HIGH- 
SCHOOL  PUPILS 


basis  of  ability,  there  would  be  few  if  any  pupils  in 
this  high  school  much  below  the  mental  level  of  14 
years.  On  the  other  hand,  of  the  31  pupils  who  have  a 
mental  age  score  of  17  or  above,  26  are  less  than  15| 
years  of  age.  The  median  mental  age  of  the  137  pupils 
is  15-10. 

The  highest  mental  age  in  Hubbard's  fifth-grade 
classes  (15-3)  not  only  overlaps  those  of  the  first-year 
high  school,  but  almost  reaches  the  median  for  the 
latter.  However,  the  lowest  mental  age  in  the  high- 
school  group  (12-8)  is  not  nearly  as  low  as  the  median 
for  the  fifth  grade. 

If  we  consider  the  mental  age  14-5  to  15-5  to  be 
that  normal  for  the  first  year  of  high  school,  then  27, 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     79 

or  20  per  cent,  are  mentally  below  the  standard  mental 
age  for  the  grade,  and  80,  or  58  per  cent,  are  above. 
There  are  41  pupils,  or  30  per  cent,  above  the  mental 
age  of  16i;  and  22,  or  16  per  cent,  above  the  mental 
age  of  17?.  It  could  perhaps  hardly  be  maintained 
that  all  of  these  22  ought  to  be  doing  the  work  of  the 
junior  year,  as  this  work  is  now  constituted,  but  one 
is  tempted  to  raise  the  question  whether  high-school 
curricula  are  not  framed  for  a  higher  level  of  mental 
ability  than  is  justifiable. 

Mental  age  and  school  marks.  Is  success  in  high 
school  largely  determined  by  mental  age,  as  was  found 
to  be  the  case  in  the  first  and  fifth  grades  ?  The  answer 
will  be  found  in  Table  11,  which  shows  the  correlation 
between  mental  age  and  average  school  mark  for  the 
111  pupils  who  are  still  in  school. 


Mental  age 

Average 

mark 

13*  to  14* 

14*  to  15* 

15*  to  16* 

16*  to  17* 

17*  to  18* 

18*  to  19* 

Total 

A 

1 

1 

3 

5 

B+ 

. 

4 

4 

12 

3 

5 

28 

B 

4 

7 

6 

a* 

8 

4 

37 

C 
C- 

4 
4 

t 

5 

4 

2 

4 

1 
1 

3 

25 
15 

D 

•• 

1 

•• 

•• 

1 

Total 

12 

23 

20 

27 

14 

15 

TABLE  11.  RELATION  BETWEEN  SCHOOL  MARKS  AND  MENTAL  AGE 
(Correlation  .45) 


80     INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN  m 

The  correlation  is  moderately  high,  but  considerably 
lower  than  is  found  in  the  grades  below  the  high  school. 
The  following  facts  are,  however,  very  significant: 

1.  Of  the  5  pupils  with  an  average  mark  of  A,  not 
one  is  below  the  mental  age  score  of  17  years. 

2.  Of  the  28  whose  average  score  is  B  -f ,  not  one  is 
below  the  mental  age  of  15  years. 

I    3.  Of  the  56  who  earned  a  mental  age  score  as  high 
as  16}  years,  only  8  have  an  average  mark  below  B. 

4.  Of  the  12  with  a  mental  age  below  14},  8  earned 
an  average  mark  of  C  or  lower. 

5.  The  only  pupils  tested  whose  mental  ages  were 
below  13}  years  (four  in  number),  had  already  been 
eliminated  because  of  failure,  and  so  do  not  appear 
in  Table  10. 

Throughout  Proctor's  study  it  appears  that  the 
standards  of  work  which  are  maintained  in  the  first 
year  of  average  California  high  schools  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  met  by  pupils  with  a  Stanford-Binet 
mental  age  below  13  years,  and  that  below  the  mental 
age  of  14  years  the  chances  of  success  are  hot  good.  In 
rare  instances  the  pupil  of  12-year  mental  age  is  able 
to  make  passing  grades,  but  only  by  virtue  of  excep- 
tional application  and  an  attractive  personality. 

Intelligence  quotients.  For  the  group  of  107  pupils 
entering  in  September,  1916,  the  I  Q's  ranged  from  79 
to  136,  with  a  median  of  105.  The  lowest  25  per  cent 
fell  to  96  or  below,  the  highest  25  per  cent  reached  117 
or  above.  The  median  for  the  boys  was  Ig7;  for  the 
girls,  102. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     81 

The  distribution  of  I  Q's  is  shown  in  Figure  19.  The 
most  striking  thing  about  the  distribution  is  that  only 
three  cases  appear  below  85,  and  only  eight  cases  be- 
low 90.  Above  90  the  number  of  cases  increases  with 
marked  suddenness,  indicating  that  entrance  to  this 
high  school  is  pretty  well  barred  to  children  who  test 
much  below  90. 


70-79          80-89  90-99        100-109       110-119         120-129       130-139 

.9%  6.6%  29%  23.3%         21.4%  14%  4.6% 

FIG.  19.  I  Q  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FIRST-YEAR  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS 

Except  for  the  smaller  number  in  the  lower  range, 
the  distribution  of  I  Q's  of  first-year  high-school  pupils 
is  similar  in  form  to  that  found  for  the  lower  grades. 
However,  the  Stanford-Binet  probably  grades  a  trifle 
severely  at  the  upper  end.  As  is  shown  elsewhere 
an  I  Q  of  130  in  the  case  of  a  child  of  15  years  is 
probably  equivalent  to  an  I  Q  of  140  for  a  child  under 
12.  Even  so,  the  range  of  I  Q's  from  79  to  138  is  very 
great. 


82      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


I  Q  and  chronological  age.  There  was  found,  as 
would  naturally  be  expected,  a  high  negative  correla- 
tion (-.74)  between  I  Q  and  chronological  age,  which, 
of  course,  simply  means  that  the  children  who  enter 
high  school  young  are  generally  brighter  than  those 
who  enter  late. 


IQ 

Chronological  age 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

i 
i 

130-139 
120-129 
110-119 
100-109 
90-  99 
80-  89 
70-  79 

2 
2 

2 
8 
14 

2 

1 

5 
7 
14 
11 
1 

i 

8 
16 
2 

1 
1 

3 
2 

i 
i 

TABLE  12.  SHOWING  NEGATIVE  CORRELATION  BETWEEN  AGE 
AND  I  Q.  (Correlation  —.72) 

As  shown  in  Table  12,  no  pupil  below  13f  years 
tested  lower  than  120.  Of  the  30  pupils  below  14J 
years  of  age,  not  one  tested  lower  than  100,  and  only 
2  lower  than  110.  It  is  evident  that  to  enter  this  high 
school  on  schedule  time  ordinarily  requires  decidedly 
better  than  average  intelligence.  On  the  other  hand, 
of  the  38  pupils  who  were  above  the  age  of  15  J,  only  11 
tested  as  high  as  100,  and  only  2  as  high  as  1 1 0.  These 
38  pupils  constitute  the  retarded  group,  again  indicat- 
ing that  the  chief  cause  of  retardation  is  mental  inferi- 
ority. Of  the  38,  70  per  cent  are  below  100  I  Q.  As 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     83 


we  have  already  stated,  the  lowest  I  Q  was  that  of  a 
girl  who  was  over  19. 

The  negative  correlation  between  age  and  bright- 
ness is  further  illustrated  by  the  scores  made  in  the 
vocabulary  test.  Table  13  shows  that  in  general  the 
largest  vocabularies  are  possessed  by  the  youngest 
pupils,  the  smallest  vocabularies  by  the  oldest  pupils. 
The  positive  correlation  of  vocabulary  with  mental 
age  is  shown  in  Table  14  for  comparison. 


j,t     Vocabulary 
score 

Chronological  age 

13  ' 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

90-99 

1 

80-89 

1 

5 
21 
9 

2 

1 
11 
10 
21 
6 

*3 
12 
13 

2 

1 

2 
4 
3 

V 

1 

2 

70-79. 

1 

.    4 

60-69  

50-59  

40-19  
30-39  

•• 

TABLE  18.   VOCABULARY  AND  AGE,    (Correlation  —.40) 


Vocabulary 


Mental  age 


Bcore 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

90-99  

1 

80-89  

1 

1 

70-79. 

1 

6 

4 

6 

4 

60-69  
50-59.   .  . 

2 

3 
10 

10 
17 

18 
13 

10 
5 

6 
1 

2 

40-49.   .. 

1 

9 

2 

2 

30-39  

1 

1 

TABLE  14.  VOCABULARY  AND  MENTAL  AGE.   (Correlation  +.656) 


84      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

I  Q  and  school  work.  The  correlation  between  I  Q 
and  school  work  was  somewhat  higher  than  between 
mental  age  and  school  work  (.545  as  against  .44). 
While  the  disagreements  were  fairly  numerous,  most 
of  them  could  be  accounted  for  by  such  factors  as 
health,  attendance,  degree  of  application,  and  attitude 
toward  work.  Often  it  was  the  test  which  disagreed 
most  with  quality  of  school  work  that  contributed 
most  to  an  understanding  of  the  pupil.  In  general, 
however,  school  work  rose  and  fell  with  I  Q,  as  is 
shown  by  Tables  15  and  16. 


School  marks     Average  I  Q   . 

No.  cases 

50-59                  85 

12 

60-69                100 

16 

70-79                107 

56 

80-89                110 

24 

90-99                123 

4 

TABLE  15.  AVERAGE  I  Q  FOB  DIFFERENT  SCHOOL  MARKS 

I  Q  Average  mark      No.  cases 

75-  84  63  2 

85-  94  72  17 

95-104  74  28 

105-114  76  24 

115-124  81  19 

125  and  over  83  12 

TABLE  16.  AVERAGE  SCHOOL  MARK  FOR  DIFFERENT  I  Q's 

I  Q  and  teachers'  estimates  of  intelligence.  The 
teachers  were  asked  to  estimate  the  intelligence  of 
each  pupil  on  the  usual  scale  of  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  For  102 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     85 


pupils  the  ratings  were  made  by  at  least  three  teachers. 
The  ratings  for  each  child  were  then  averaged  to  secure 
a  composite  rating.  The  teachers  did  not  confer  with 
one  another  in  making  the  ratings  nor  did  they  know 
the  results  of  the  tests.  The  correlation  of  the  com- 
posite ratings  with  I  Q's  is  shown  in  Table  17. 


.   Composite 

Intelligence  Quotient 

•     teachers 

75-84 

85-94 

95-104 

105-114 

115-124 

125-134 

135+ 

1        to  1.74 

4 

3 

1.75  to  2.  49 

.. 

1 

3 

8 

7 

4 

1 

2.5    to  3.  24 

7 

12 

12 

6 

4 

3.25  to  3.  99 

6 

13 

4 

2 

4        to  4.  75 

2 

3 

1 

•• 

•• 

•• 

TABLE  17.  SHOWING  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  I  Q  AND  TEACHEBS' 
RATINGS  ON  INTELLIGENCE.  (Correlation  .59) 

The  correlation  is  fairly  high.  It  would  have  been 
considerably  higher  but  for  the  fact  that  the  over-age 
children  were  rated  too  high,  the  under-age  children 
too  low.  The  tendency  of  teachers  is  to  base  their 
estimates  of  intelligence  on  the  quality  of  the  work, 
paying  too  little  attention  to  age  or  degree  of  applica- 
tion. The  correlation  between  the  teachers'  ratings 
and  the  class  marks  was  .70.  There  were  eight  pupils 
below  95  I  Q  who  received  an  intelligence  rating  of 
"average."  All  but  two  of  these  were  above  the  me- 
dian chronological  age  of  the  class. 

Although  the  teachers'  ratings  were  made  independ- 


86      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

ently  of  each  other,  there  proved  to  be  an  average  inter- 
correlation  of  .677  between  the  ratings  of  one  teacher 
and  those  of  another.  This  would  indicate  that  all  the 
teachers  based  their  estimates  of  intelligence  on  much 
the  same  thing,  namely,  quality  of  school  work. 

Relation  of  intelligence  to  elimination.  Of  the  107 
who  entered  the  Palo  Alto  High  School  in  1916-17, 
all  of  whom  were  tested,  there  were  27  who  did  not 
reenter  the  following  year.  Fourteen  of  these  had 
transferred  to  other  schools  and  13  had  left  school  "to 
go  to  work."  The  I  Q's  of  the  latter  group  were  79, 
83,  85,  87,  90,  92,  97,  97,/LOl,  105, 106,  115.  The  boy 
with  I  Q  of  115  had  left  only  temporarily  on  account 
of  family  finances.  Ten  of  the  13  were  below  the 
median  I  Q  for  the  class  (105).  The  average  I  Q  of 
the  14  who  transferred  to  other  schools  was  110.  The 
average  of  the  13  who  dropped  out  was  94.  Seven  of 
the  13  had  received  marks  denoting  failure  in  more 
than  half  their  school  work.  Plainly  most  of  these 
pupils  did  not  really  "quit  school  to  go  to  work  ";  they 
went  to  work  out  of  school  because  they  could  not  do 
the  work  in  school. 

Had  there  been  a  better  understanding  of  the  degree 
of  mental  ability  necessary  for  success  in  certain  stud- 
ies fewer  eliminations  would  have  resulted.  In  this 
high  school,  at  least,  the  pupil  with  I  Q  below  90  is 
practically  certain  to  fail  in  such  studies  as  algebra 
and  Latin.  For  purposes  of  educational  guidance  it 
will  be  necessary  to  establish  the  lower  limits  of  intel- 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     87 

lectuality  necessary  for  success  in  the  various  high- 
school  subjects. 

Other  evidence  that  elimination  is  selective.  In 
the  average  American  city  not  more  than  40t  per  cent 
of  the  pupils  who  enter  the  first  grade  remain  to  enter 
high  school,  and  ordinarily  not  more  than  10  per  cent 
graduate  from  the  high  school.  Smaller  cities  make 
somewhat  better  records,  but  it  is  an  exceptional 
school  system  that  graduates  from  the  high  school  as 
many  as  one  fifth  of  its  children.  In  the  case  of  the 
SIS  cities  of  all  sizes  studied  by  Strayer,  the  central 
tendency  was  for  about  37  per  cent  to  enter  the  first 
year  of  high  school,  25  per  cent  to  enter  the  second 
year,  17  per  cent  the  third  year,  and  14  per  cent  the 
fourth  year.1  The  58  cities  studied  by  Ayres  and  the 
23  studied  by  Thorndike  made  a  considerably  lower 
record,  particularly  in  the  third  and  fourth  high-school 
grades.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  one  third  to  drop  out 
without  completing  the  work  of  the  first  year.  Not 
all  of  this  elimination  is  traceable  to  inferior  mental 
ability,  but  that  a  large  part  is  due  to  this  cause  there 
is  no  longer  room  for  doubt. 

Van  Denburg  studied  the  school  records  of  1000 
representative  children  who  entered  the  first  year  of 
high  school  in  New  York  City.  That  these  1000  pupils 
represented  a  rather  highly  selected  group  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  although  only  one  pupil  in  twenty-three 

1  Strayer,  G.  D.,  Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges. 
Bull.  No.  451,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  p.  6. 


88      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

in  the  elementary  schools  of  New  York  gained  special 
promotion,  one  third  of  those  who  entered  high  school 
had  done  so.  We  have  already  seen  that  pupils  who 
/enter  high  school  considerably  retarded  are  almost  in- 
*  variably  pupils  of  inferior  ability,  and  that  those  who 
enter  under-age  are  exceptionally  bright.  Remember- 
ing this,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  Van  Denburg 
found  that  pupils  who  enter  late  are  very  much  less 
likely  to  graduate  than  those  who  enter  young.  The 
same  result  was  found  for  Iowa  City  over  a  period  of 
ten  years.1  Table  18  shows  the  "graduation  expect- 
ancy" of  pupils  who  enter  at  various  ages. 

Age  of  Iowa  City        New  York 

entrance  (per  cent)          (per  cent) 

12-13  65  23 

13-14  50  19 

14-15  39  10 

15-16  29  6.5 

16-17  17  3.5 

TABLE  18.  GRADUATION  EXPECTANCY  OP  PUPILS  ENTERING  HIGH 
SCHOOL  AT  VARIOUS  AGES 

Even  when  the  late  entrant  remains  to  graduate  he 
normally  requires  more  than  four  years  to  do  so.  For 
example,  King  found  that  only  13  per  cent  of  "those 
entering  at  16  graduated  in  four  years,  and  only  9  per 
cent  of  those  entering  at  17. 

Van  Denburg's  1000  pupils  were  rated  by  their 
teachers  on  ability  shortly  after  they  entered  upon  the 

1  King,  Irving,  The  High  School  Age  (Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1914), 
p.  196. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     89 

first  semester's  work.  Three  grades  were  used: 
"high,"  "average,"  and  "low."  Of  those  rated 
"low "  50  per  cent  dropped  out  in  one  half  year  or  less; 
of  those  rated  "average,"  50  per  cent  dropped  out 
within  one  and  one  half  years;  of  those  rated  "high," 
50  per  cent  remained  for  three  years  or  more.  The 
marks  given  these  pupils  at  the  end  of  the  first  term 
proved  also  to  have  great  value  as  an  index  of  future 
elimination.  The  median  expectancy  for  those  secur- 
ing various  marks  was  as  follows: 

Average  of  1st  term's      Time  during  which  50  per 
marks  (per  cent)  cent  remained  in  school 

0-49  £  year 

50-  59  1       " 

60-  69  1|  years 

70-  79  2£      " 

80-100  4      " 

There  can  be  but  one  conclusion  from  facts  like  those  v 
we  have  just  cited:  high-school  elimination  is  very  selec-/ 
live.  Although  there  are  many  individual  exceptions, 
the  pupils  who  drop  out  are  in  the  main  pupils  of  in- 
ferior ability.  The  high  school  offers  little  which  can  be 
done  by  pupils  of  much  less  than  average  intelligence. 

Are  high-school  standards  too  high?  It  would  seem 
that  if  the  pupils  of  inferior  ability  are  to  be  retained 
the  high  school  will  have  to  do  one  of  two  things: 
either  (1)  lower  the  standards  in  the  present  courses, 
or  (2)  add  other  studies  which  are  easier  while  at  the 
same  time  educationally  worth  while. 


90      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

It  may  be  that  we  have  judged  the  high  school  too 
exclusively  by  the  difficulty  pupils  encounter  in  meet- 
ing its  standards  for  graduation.  Largely  through 
the  influence  of  the  university,  the  bars  have  been 
raised  until  graduation  is  well  beyond  the  intellectual 
endowment  of  a  large  proportion  of  children.  Below 
90  I  Q  graduation  is  by  no  means  likely,  and  nearly  a 
third  of  all  children  test  this  low  or  lower.  Proctor 
found  that  70  per  cent  of  those  testing  below  95  I  Q 
failed  in  more  than  hah*  of  their  studies.  A  nation 
falls  short  of  the  true  ideals  of  democracy  which  re- 
fuses to  furnish  suitable  training  to  a  third  of  its  chil- 
dren merely  because  their  endowment  does  not  enable 
them  to  complete  a  course  of  study  which  will  satisfy 
the  requirements  for  college  entrance. 

There  was  a  time  when  those  whose  ability  would 
not  carry  them  through  algebra  or  Latin  could  turn 
with  some  hope  of  success  to  the  modern  languages  or 
to  science.  In  proportion  as  these  studies  became 
established  they  too  raised  then*  requirements.  When 
the  commercial  subjects  were  brought  into  the  high- 
school  curriculum,  these  in  turn  became  the  dumping- 
ground  for  failures.  However,  the  teachers  of  com- 
mercial subjects  were  not  long  in  discovering  that 
there  is  no  demand  in  stenography  or  bookkeeping  for 
commercial  graduates  of  inferior  ability.  At  present 
other  lines  of  vocational  training  are  being  introduced 
into  the  high  school  and  the  pupils  who  cannot  succeed 
in  the  older  subjects  are  turning  to  these.  Whether 


DIFFERENCES  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS     91 

the  solution  will  be  found  there  will  depend  largely  on 
the  variety  of  courses  the  high  school  undertakes  to 
offer,  and  on  whether  it  is  willing  to  forego  the  semi- 
collegiate  standards  in  favor  of  a  humbler  task. 

High  schools  at  present  are  in  a  measure  "  class  "- 
schools.  The  child  of  75  to  85  I  Q  has  an  inalienable 
right  to  the  kind  of  training  from  which  he  can  derive 
profit.  Since  there  are  so  many  who  cannot  master 
the  usual  high-school  studies,  new  lines  of  work  of  a 
more  practical  nature  will  have  to  be  added.  Since 
there  are  probably  ieaj^ex.cent  who  have  not  even  the 
ability  to  complete  the  work  preparatory  to  high  school, 
the  differentiation  of  courses  will  have  to  begin  in  the 
sixth  or  seventh  grade.  Instead  of  being  undemo- 
cratic, as  some  have  argued,  such  differentiation  of 
courses  and  enlargement  of  opportunities  for  vocational 
training  of  the  humbler  sort  is  a  necessary  corollary  of 
the  truly  democratic  ideal. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING « 

THE  I  Q.does  not  itself  tell  us  in  what  grade  a  pupil 
belongs.  A  child  testing  at  75  I Q  and  another  testing 
at  125  may  be  equally  ready  for  work  of  fourth-grade 
difficulty,  provided  the  chronological  age  of  the  former 
is  thirteen  and  that  of  the  latter  eight.  Each  would 
thus  have  a  mental  age  of  approximately  ten  years. 
The  basis  of  grading  is  therefore  mentaj^age  rather 
than  I  Q.  The  latter  is  merely  an  index  of  brightness. 
It  is  extremely  significant,  because  it  enables  us  to 
forecast  a  child's  later  mental  development,  but  grade 
of  work  which  a  pupil  can  do  at  any  given  time  de- 
pends rather  upon  the  absolute  mental  level. 

There  is  a  slight  correction  to  add  to  this  statement. 
To  a  certain  extent  I  Q  differences  do  affect  the  qual- 
ity of  school  work  which  a  given  mental  age  may  do. 
In  the  illustration  given  above,  it  is  altogether  likely 
that  the  eight-year  child  of  125  I  Q  will  do  somewhat 
better  work  in  the  fourth  grade  than  the  thirteen-year 
child  of  75  I  Q,  even  though  they  have  the  same  men- 
tal age.  The  greater  intellectual  spontaneity  of  the 
young  bright  child  somewhat  outweighs  the  advantage 
which  the  older  but  mentally  inferior  child  has  in  age 
and  school  training. 

1  Written  with  the  assistance  of  Isabel  Preston. 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    93 

Normal  mental  age  for  the  different  grades.  The 
child  is  expected  to  start  to  school  between  the  ages  of 
six  and  seven  years.  Although  many  start  later  and 
some  younger,  the  average  entrance*  age  in  most  parts 
of  the  United  States  is  not  far  from  six  and  a  half. 
Reckoning  on  this  basis  the  standard  mental  age  for 
the  different  grades  would  be  as  follows : 

Grade  "  Standard  mental  age 

1 6-6  to    7-5  or  approximately    7  years 

H 7-6  to    8-5"  8     " 

III 8i!t(U£&"  9— -- 

IV 9H5*tolO-5"  "  10     " 

Y^^^...  lft-6toll-5"  "  11^   " 

VI 11-6  to  12-5"  "  12     " 

VII 12-6  to  13-5"  "     ,    .  13     " 

VIII 13-6  to  14-5"    '  14     " 

High  School  I....  14-6  to  15-5"  "  15     " 

Etc. 

Children  who  are  in  grades  corresponding  to  these 
standards  are  in  the  large  majority  of  cases  found 
doing  work  of  average  quality.  If  the  mental  age  is 
much  above  or  below  the  norms  just  indicated  the 
school  work  is  usually  correspondingly  superior  or 
inferior. 

Table  19  shows  the  per  cent  of  children  rated  as 
superior,  average,  or  inferior  who  are  in  the  grade  cor- 
responding to  mental  age  (1936  cases). 

It  is  seen  that  the  mental  age  norms  we  have  given 
fit  the  difficulty  of  work  in  the  different  grades  fairly 
closely.  There  is  a  slight  tendency,  however,  for  chil- 


94      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Quality  of  work 

Mental  age 

Grade 

Inferior  or 
very  inferior 
(per  cent) 

Average 
(per  cent) 

Superior  or 
very  superior 
(per  cent) 

6-6  to    7-5 

I 

20 

52 

28 

7-6  to    8-5 

II 

26 

46 

28 

8-6  to    9-5 

III 

23 

57 

20 

9-6  to  10-5 

IV 

25 

54 

21 

10-6  to  11-5 

V 

24 

58 

18 

11-6  to  12-5 

VI 

31 

49 

20 

12-6  to  13-5 

VII 

28 

50 

22 

13-6  to  14-5 

VIII 

31 

48 

21 

14-6  to  15-5 

H.S.  I 

47 

34 

19 

TABLE  19.  SHOWING  QUALITY  OP  SCHOOL  WORK  DONE  BY  CHILDREN 
WHO  ARE  IN  A  GRADE  CORRESPONDING  TO  MENTAL  AGE 

dren  of  the  mental  age  6-6  to  7-5  to  do  better  than 
average  work  in  grade  I,  and  for  those  of  mental  age 
13-6  to  14-5  to  do  below  average  work  in  grade  VIII. 
This  is  what  should  be  expected/  since  the  average 
mental  and  chronological  ages  for  grade  I  are  a  little 
below  seven  years,  and  those  of  grade  VIII  a  little 
above  fourteen  years.  In  the  first  year  of  high  school 
the  child  of  standard  mental  age  finds  it  still  more 
difficult  to  do  average  work.  The  median  mental  ages 
actually  found  in  the  eight  grades  and  the  first  year  of 
high  school  are  as  follows: 


Grade  

I 

II 

rn 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

H.SI. 

Cases  tested  

341 

189 

181 

253 

226 

236 

193 

180 

137 

Median  mental 

6-10 

7-11 

9-0 

9-11 

11-0 

12-1 

13-1 

14-2 

15-4 

MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    95 

So  far,  we  have  shown  that  the  child  of  standard 
mental  age  for  a  given  grade  tends  to  do  average  work 
in  that  grade.  It  remains  to  show  that  if  the  mental 
age  is  above  or  below  the  standard,  the  school  work 
tends  to  be  superior  or  inferior  to  the  average. 

Of  the  1936  children  appearing  in  the  above  table, 
120  were  two  or  more  years  above  the  grade  normal  to 
their  mental  age.  This  is  6.2  per  cent  of  the  entire 
number.  Of  the  120  not  one  was  rated  as  doing  superior 
work,  and  only  19  as  doing  average  work.  The  remain- 
ing 101  were  rated  as  doing  work  of  inferior  or  very 
inferior  quality.  Of  the  1936  there  were  234  who  were 
located  in  a  grade  two  or  more  years  below  the  stand- 
ard for  their  mental  age.  Of  these,  52  per  cent  were 
rated  above  average  in  school  work,  33  per  cent  aver- 
age, and  15  per  cent  below  average. 

Summarizing,  we  can  say  that  while  children  located 
in  a  grade  two  years  above  mental  age  are  rarely  able 
to  do  average  work,  there  are  somewhat  more  in  a 
grade  two  years  below  mental  age  whose  school  work 
is  not  satisfactory.  The  child  with  mental  age  more 
than  equal  to  his  work  may  yet  fail  because  of  illness, 
lack  of  application,  or  for  any  of  a  number  of  reasons. 
On  the  other  hand,  exceptional  industry  can  rarely 
make  good  the  disadvantage  which  a  child  suffers 
whose  mental  age  is  two  or  three  years  below  the 
grade  standard. 

Sources  of  error  in  judging  school  success.  The 
agreement  of  school  performance  with  mental  age 


96      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

standards  would  doubtless  have  been  closer  if  all  the 
teachers  who  rated  their  children  had  been  infallible 
judges  of  the  quality  of  school  work,  if  the  work  of  a 
given  grade  had  always  been  of  the  same  difficulty, 
and  if  they  all  had  taken  the  terms  "  average,"  "  supe- 
rior," and  "  inferior  "  in  exactly  the  same  sense.  All 
of  these  sources  of  error  are  serious,  especially  the  last. 
As  we  have  pointed  out  so  many  times,  each  teacher 
tends  to  take  as  her  rating  standard  the  average  work 
actually  being  done  in  her  class.  If  her  class  has  a 
disproportionate  number  of  dull  pupils  she  tends  to 
rate  too  high;  the  reverse,  if  her  class  as  a  whole  is 
exceptionally  bright. 

Ratings  on  school  work  are  also  likely  to  be  influ- 
enced by  the  personal  traits  of  the  individual  children. 
Traits  which  tend  to  cause  over-rating  are  vivacity, 
responsiveness,  talkativeness,  self-confidence,  good 
looks,  neatness,  application,  and  conscientiousness. 
The  child  who  is  vivacious  and  self-confident,  but 
parrot-like  and  superficial,  is  almost  sure  to  be  over- 
rated; the  stolid-appearing  or  quiet  and  timid  child, 
to  be  under-rated.  The  child  who  does  his  work 
neatly  and  conscientiously  is  likely  to  be  rated  more 
leniently  than  the  child  who  is  slovenly,  careless,  or 
disobedient.  The  child  whose  hearing  or  speech  is 
defective  is  also  at  a  disadvantage  in  such  compara- 
tive ratings. 

Errors  of  this  kind,  however,  are  not  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  fact  that  only  forty  to  sixty  per  cent 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    97 

of  school  pupils  are  located  in  the  grade  corresponding 
to  mental  age.  Perhaps  an  even  more  frequent  cause 
of  incorrect  grading  is  the  tendency  of  teachers  to 
promote  children  by  age,  resulting  in  over-promotion 
of  the  dull  and  under-promotion  of  the  bright.  The 
teacher  does  not  ordinarily  realize  how  far  the  dull 
over-age  child  has  been  promoted  beyond  the  grade 
where  he  could  do  average  work.  She  is  still  farther 
from  knowing  that  the  typical  under-age  bright  child 
would  in  a  majority  of  cases  continue  to  do  satisfac- 
tory work  if  promoted  one  or  two  grades. 

However,  there  are  occasional  discrepancies  be- 
tween mental  age  and  school  performance  which  can- 
not be  traced  either  to  errors  in  rating  or  to  mechani- 
cal methods  of  promotion.  The  quality  of  a  child's 
school  work  depends  in  part  upon  other  factors  than 
intelligence,  among  which  are  health,  regularity  of 
attendance,  degree  of  application,  attitude  toward 
teacher,  emotional  stability,  amount  of  encouragement 
at  home,  etc.  The  effect  of  most  of  these  extraneous 
factors  is  to  make  school  performance  less  satisfactory 
than  the  mental  age  would  lead  us  to  expect. 

Discrepancies  between  mental  age  and  school  per- 
formance. For  several  years,  in  connection  with  Binet 
tests  made  by  many  Stanford  University  students,  we 
have  investigated  those  cases  in  which  a  marked  dis- 
agreement was  found  between  mental  age  and  school 
performance.  The  findings  would  fill  a  long  and  in- 
teresting chapter,  but  the  results  of  a  single  series  of 


98      INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tests  will  acquaint  the  reader  with  the  common  types 
of  cases.  We  will  select  for  this  purpose  the  investi- 
gation of  Miss  Preston,  who  made  a  study  of  the  dis- 
agreements found  in  tests  of  238  pupils  in  the  eight 
grades  of  the  Santa  Clara,  California,  grammar  school. 
The  pupils  tested  constituted  about  a  third  of  those 
enrolled  in  the  school,  and  were  selected  so  as  to  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  representative.  Most  of  them  had 
also  been  given  the  Trabue  B  and  C  Completion  Tests 
and  the  Army  mental  test.  In  addition  each  child 
was  rated  by  the  class  teacher  on  each  of  the  following: 
social  status,  school  work,  intelligence,  dependability, 
and  social  adaptability.  Miss  Preston  had  been  for 
ten  years  principal  of  the  school  in  which  the  tests 
were  made,  and  had  known  all  the  children  personally 
from  the  time  they  first  entered.  Her  acquaintance 
with  parents  and  home  conditions  was  also  of  great 
advantage. 

It  was  found  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the 
result  of  the  Stanford-Binet  test  agreed  remarkably 
well  with  the  child's  school  work,  particularly  when 
the  quality  of  work  for  a  period  of  years  was  made  the 
basis  of  the  comparison.  The  238  tests  yielded  only 
34  discrepancies  worthy  of  note,  and  many  of  these 
were  not  large.  In  29  of  the  34  cases  the  quality 
of  school  work  as  rated  by  the  teacher  was  poorer 
than  the  mental  age  would  seem  to  warrant,  and 
in  only  5  cases  better.  Where  discrepancy  of  the 
latter  kind  occurred  it  was  ordinarily  due  either  to  ex- 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    99 

ceptional  application  on  the  part  of  the  child  or  to  the 
effect  of  vivacity,  responsiveness,  or  other  favorable 
personal  traits  in  influencing  the  teacher's  judgment. 
On  the  other  hand,  discrepancy  in  the  direction  of  in- 
ferior work  resulted  from  a  variety  of  causes,  including 
timidity,  lack  of  self-confidence,  physical  defects,  lack 
of  application,  emotional  instability,  psychopathic 
heredity,  home  "  spoiling,"  love  affairs,  etc. 

In  the  following  pages  we  present  Miss  Preston's  brief 
description  of  the  salient  features  of  typical  cases  of 
discrepancy.  The  ratings  given  by  the  teacher  were  in 
this  experiment  based  on  a  scale  of  seven,1  as  follows: 

1.  "Very  superior"; 

2.  "Superior"; 

3.  "Above  average"; 

4.  "Average"; 

5.  "Below  average"; 

6.  "Inferior"; 

7.  "Very  inferior." 

Showing  effect  of  unusual  application. 

Ernest.  Age  15-0,  mental  age  12-3,  I  Q  82,  eighth 
grade,  quality  of  work  5.  Portuguese,  social  status  5. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  5,  social  adaptability  3,  de- 
pendability 3. 

Discrepancy:  The  mental  age  is  a  year  and  a  half  below 
that  normal  for  the  eighth  grade,  but  the  work  is  passing 
(though  below  average). 

1  It  will  be  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  numbers  designat- 
ing ratings  do  not  correspond  to  those  quoted  in  other  chapters  of 
this  book,  most  of  which  were  based  on  a  five-fold  instead  of  a  seven- 
fold classification. 


100    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Ernest's  teachers  agree  that  the  test  has  rated  his  intellec- 
tual ability  correctly.  It  happens,  however,  that  his  most 
characteristic  trait  is  one  which  escapes  an  intelligence  scale. 
Ernest  is  an  erect  little  fellow,  with  a  straightforward  look, 
who  works  with  all  his  might  at  anything  he  attempts  to  do. 
No  other  pupil  in  the  school  equals  him  in  application.  He 
often  reaches  school  ten  minutes  after  seven  o'clock  in  order 
to  study  his  history  lesson  until  nine.  First  he  reads  and 
re-reads  his  lesson  in  an  attempt  to  get  the  meaning.  Then 
he  writes  it.  After  that  he  says  it  aloud  over  and  over. 
When  the  other  children  begin  to  arrive  he  hauls  one  of  them 
in  to  hear  him  recite  it  and  to  have  him  explain  what  some  of 
the  words  mean.  In  class,  Ernest  is  a  living  question  mark. 
"What  does  it  mean  by  those  words?"  "Does  it  mean 
this?"  He  is  oblivious  to  the  teacher's  impatience  and  to 
the  amusement  caused  among  his  fellow  pupils.  There  is 
no  escape  from  his  questions.  Even  as  the  line  files  hi  or 
out  his  teacher  gets  a  "What  does  this  mean?"  as  he 
marches  by.  When  Ernest  does  a  thing  he  does  it  thor- 
oughly, in  school  or  out.  He  is  captain  of  the  baseball  team 
and  does  a  vigorous  job  of  it. 

Showing  effect  of  child's  personality  on  the  teach- 
er's ratings. 

Jennie.  Age  12,  mental  age  10-8,  I  Q  89,  sixth  grade, 
quality  of  work  2.  American,  social  status  3.  Teacher's 
ratings :  intelligence  2,  social  adaptability  2,  dependability  2. 

Discrepancy:  " Superior"  work  in  a  grade  which  is  more 
than  a  year  above  her  mental  age. 

Jennie  attracts  attention  by  her  smiling,  vivacious  face 
and  sparkling  eyes.  She  is  alert,  quick  in  movement,  but 
without  self-consciousness.  In  conversation  she  is  respon- 
sive, eager  and  reflects  your  every  expression.  In  class  her 
sye  never  leaves  the  teacher's  face  and  she  follows  every  ex- 
planation with  intent  eagerness.  All  of  this  naturally  influ- 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    101 


ences  the  teacher's  estimate  of  her  iutelJigeaoe  ano  s 
work. 

Donald.  Age  12-0,  mental  age  16-8,  I  Q  139,  sixth 
grade,  quality  of  work  2.  American,  social  status  3. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  2,  social  adaptability  2,  de- 
pendability 2. 

Discrepancy:  The  mental  age  would  indicate  ability  to  do 
high  school  work,  but  Donald  is  only  in  the  sixth  grade. 
However,  his  work  in  this  grade  is  "superior"  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  he  would  be  able  to  do  satisfactory  work  hi  a  higher 
grade. 

Donald  is  chiefly  of  interest  in  comparison  with  Jennie, 
described  above.  The  two  are  of  almost  exactly  the  same 
age  and  are  both  doing  "superior"  work  in  the  sixth  grade. 
Jennie,  however,  is  barely  average-normal  in  intelligence, 
while  Donald  tests  at  139.  This  difference  is  confirmed  by 
the  Trabue  test  and  also  by  the  Army  test. 

In  personality  Donald  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  Jen- 
nie. Her  responsiveness  and  vivacity  are  fully  matched 
by  his  apparent  stolidity  and  shyness.  Donald  talks  only 
in  monosyllables.  He  has  been  so  thoroughly  suppressed 
at  home  by  a  severe  father  that  he  is  shrinking  and  timid. 
When  successful  in  drawing  him  out  one  finds  a  highly  sensi- 
tive nature  of  rare  sweetness  and  poetic  feeling.  But  the 
least  stir  sends  him  shrinking  back  into  his  shell  with  a  hurt 
air  and  a  suspicious  glance.  He  has  no  self-confidence, 
never  expresses  his  feelings,  and  avoids  doing  anything  that 
could  possibly  attract  attention. 

Claire.  Age  9-10,  mental  age  12-7,  I  Q  128,  fourth 
grade,  quality  of  work  2.  American,  social  status  4. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  2,  social  adaptability  2,  de- 
pendability 1. 

Discrepancy:  Mental  age  two  years  above  her  grade. 
However,  her  school  work  is  superior  and  she  could  proba- 
bly do  the  work  in  the  next  higher  grade.  The  fact  that 


102    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


she  has.  h&d  (,«ne  sxlri*  promotion  agrees  with  her  high  in- 
telligence quotient. 

Claire  is  slow  in  her  movements  and  slow  in  finishing 
assigned  tasks.  She  is  diffident,  hesitating  in  speech,  and 
waits  for  approval.  Her  teacher  seldom  realizes,  until  re- 
view tune,  how  thoroughly  Claire  gets  her  work. 

Showing  effect  of  timidity  and  lack  of  self-confi- 
dence. 

Clifford.  Age  8-5,  mental  age  8-6,  I  Q  101,  third 
grade,  quality  of  work  5.  American,  social  status  4. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  4,  social  adaptability  4,  de- 
pendability 4. 

Discrepancy:  In  grade  corresponding  to  mental  age,  but 
his  work  until  last  year  barely  passing. 

Clifford  has  no  self-confidence.  His  mother  speaks  in 
his  presence  of  his  stupidity  and  compares  him  disparag- 
ingly with  his  bright  older  brother.  Hard  to  get  him  to  try, 
but  his  work  has  recently  shown  improvement. 

Louise.  Age  9-1,  mental  age  10-6,  I  Q  115,  fourth 
grade,  quality  of  work  6.  American,  social  status  3. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  4,  social  adaptability  4,  de- 
pendability 3. 

Discrepancy:  School  work  "inferior"  although  mental  age 
would  indicate  ability  for  the  fourth  grade. 

Louise  is  timid  and  easily  worn  out  by  excitement.  Likely 
to  appear  bewildered  when  placed  in  a  group.  Is  domi- 
nated by  an  older  sister  whom  she  worships,  but  who  has 
reached  an  irritable  stage  in  her  development.  Louise  can- 
not please  her  in  any  way,  although  her  endeavors  are  con- 
stant. 

Showing  effect  of  mental  inertia. 

Leonard.  Age  13-6,  mental  age  13-10,  I  Q  103,  seventh 
grade,  quality  of  work  6.  American,  social  status  5. 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    103 

Teacher's  ratings :  intelligence  5,  social  adaptability  5,  de- 
pendability 5. 

Discrepancy:  Both  chronological  age  and  mental  age 
normal  for  grade,  but  school  work  has  always  been  decidedly 
inferior. 

Leonard's  father,  now  dead,  was  a  shiftless  drunkard. 
The  mother,  ostensibly  a  nurse,  leads  an  immoral  life. 
Several  cousins  are  feeble-minded.  Leonard's  smiling  good 
nature  and  constitutional  indolence  are  proverbial  among 
his  teachers.  One  wonders  whether  he  ever  did  anything 
he  was  not  compelled  to  do.  In  school  he  sits  smiling  pleas- 
antly at  others  or  staring  off  into  space,  dreaming.  When 
prodded  by  the  teacher  he  opens  his  book  and  stares  into 
it  vacantly.  Perhaps  the  book  is  upside  down.  Occasion- 
ally he  wakes  up  and  gives  a  clear,  fluent  account  of  some- 
thing he  has  read  or  seen,  but  he  soon  lapses  again  into  his 
customary  state  of  oblivion. 

Showing  effects  of  emotional  instability  or  nervous 
tendencies. 

Olivia.  Age  12-6,  mental  age  13-2,  I  Q  105,  seventh 
grade,  quality  of  work  6.  Portuguese,  social  status  4. 
Teacher's  ratings :  intelligence  5,  social,  adaptability  4,  de- 
pendability 4. 

Discrepancy:  Up  to  grade-age  mentally  and  chronologi- 
cally, Olivia  has  been  promoted  on  trial  from  almost  every 
grade. 

Of  Portuguese  parents  whose  heads  have  been  turned  by 
prosperity.  The  mother  says  hi  her  presence  that  Olivia 
has  inherited  her  own  nervousness  and  inability  to  do  arith- 
metic. Needless  to  say,  Olivia  is  nervous  and  cannot  do 
arithmetic.  She  flounces  around  at  her  lessons,  adds  a  bit, 
jiggles  her  desk,  drops  her  books,  picks  them  up,  caresses 
her  curls,  etc.  When  in  trouble  pretends  to  be  about  to 
faint,  but  quickly  recovers  if  threatened  with  punishment. 


104    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Emotional  instability  fully  explains  the  discrepancy  be- 
tween intelligence  and  school  success. 

Joseph.  Age  13-10,  mental  age  15-9,  I  Q  114,  eighth 
grade,  quality  of  school  work  6.  American,  social  status  5. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  4,  social  adaptability  6,  de- 
pendability 6. 

Discrepancy:  Mental  age  above  average  for  grade,  but 
school  work  very  unsatisfactory. 

Joseph  has  two  sisters  who  are  feeble-minded  and  blind. 
Two  of  his  three  brothers,  also  feeble-minded,  are  dead.  The 
third  brother  is  a  "movie"  star  of  national  fame.  Joseph's 
mother  is  a  kindly  faced  woman  who  has  been  deserted  by 
her  worthless  husband,  and  supports  herself  by  taking  in 
washing.  Joseph  himself  is  a  bookworm,  reading  every- 
thing he  can  lay  his  hand  on  from  Sunday-School  books  to 
encyclopaedias.  His  mind  is  an  exhaustless  reservoir  of 
unrelated  facts.  Psychopathic  symptoms.  Suffers  at  times 
from  the  idea  of  persecution,  at  which  times  he  refuses  to  do 
any  school  work  or  even  to  talk. 

Effect  of  home  "  spoiling." 

Gordon.  Age  5-7,  mental  age  6-6,  I  Q  116,  first  grade, 
quality  of  work  5.  American,  social  status  3.  Teacher's 
ratings:  intelligence  5,  dependability  5. 

Discrepancy:  School  work  "inferior,"  although  in  grade 
corresponding  to  mental  age. 

Gordon  is  the  son  of  a  minister  and  badly  spoiled  from 
petting  and  humoring.  Attitude  of  condescension  toward 
school  work.  Attention  poor;  easily  fatigued;  bad  sex  habits. 

Bernard.  Age  7-1,  mental  age  7-8,  I  Q  108,  first  grade, 
quality  of  work  5  to  6.  Portuguese,  social  status  5.  Teach- 
er's ratings:  intelligence  4,  social  adaptability  4,  dependa- 
bility 5. 

Discrepancy:  School  work  below  average,  although  men- 
tal age  is  a  half  year  above  normal  for  grade. 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    105 

Bernard  is  a  handsome  child;  the  other  five  in  the  same 
family  are  very  homely.  Has  always  been  petted  and  al- 
lowed to  have  his  own  way. 

Showing  influence  of  physical  defects. 

Roy.  Age  15,  mental  age  14-8, 1  Q  98,  seventh  grade, 
quality  of  work  6.  American,  social  status  4.  Teacher's 
ratings:  intelligence  6,  social  adaptability  5,  dependability  5. 

Discrepancy:  Mental  age  a  little  above  the  average  for  his 
grade,  but  school  work  "inferior." 

Thin,  anaemic,  and  sickly-looking.  Almost  hydrocepha- 
lic  in  appearance,  with  protruding  eyes  and  open  mouth. 
Very  deaf  and  resents  it.  Fails  to  hear  much  of  what  is 
said  during  recitation,  but  will  not  admit  it.  At  home  has 
been  alternately  scolded  and  petted  by  a  foolish  mother, 
with  the  result  that  he  has  irritable  and  stubborn  spells. 

Madeline.  Age  7-10  (?),  mental  age  6-2, 1  Q  79  (?),  first 
grade,  quality  of  work  7.  Portuguese,  social  status  5. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  6,  social  adaptability  6,  de- 
pendability 5. 

Discrepancy:  Although  there  is  a  question  about  Made- 
line's correct  age,  her  mental  age  of  6  plus  should  enable  her 
to  do  at  least  fair  work  in  the  first  grade.  She  is  making  al- 
most no  progress. 

Has  suffered  for  years  from  chorea.  Attends  school  until 
her  movements  become  too  uncontrolled  and  violent,  stays 
at  home  for  a  few  weeks,  then  returns  to  school.  After  a 
severe  attack  all  she  has  learned  in  school  seems  to  leave 
her. 

Love  affairs  and  day-dreaming. 

Elmer.  Age  14-2,  mental  age  14-3,  I  Q  101,  seventh 
grade,  quality  of  work  6.  American,  social  status  4. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  5,  social  adaptability  3,  de- 
pendability 4. 


106    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Discrepancy:  Failing  in  work,  but  with  mental  age 
slightly  above  his  school  grade. 

The  discrepancy  in  Elmer's  case  was  only  temporary  and 
was  caused  by  a  particularly  severe  case  of  "puppy  love." 
The  girl  moved  away,  love's  young  dream  was  broken,  and 
Elmer's  work  came  back  to  normal. 

Aldrich.  Age  7-5,  mental  age  8-6,  I  Q  115,  second 
grade,  quality  of  work  6.  American,  social  status  4. 
Teacher's  ratings:  intelligence  3,  social  adaptability  3,  de- 
pendability 4. 

Discrepancy:  Mental  age  average  for  grade  but  school 
work  "inferior." 

A  dreamer  and  not  interested  in  school  work.  Poor 
foundation  in  first  grade.  Teacher's  estimate  of  intelli- 
gence agrees  with  the  I  Q.  Unusual  vocabulary  and  in- 
formation. 

Summary.  It  appears  that  lack  of  self-confidence, 
personal  traits  which  tend  to  cause  over-rating  or  un- 
der-rating, mental  inertia,  physical  defects,  emotional 
instability,  and  psychopathic  heredity  are  the  most 
common  causes  of  discrepancy  between  mental  age 
and  quality  of  school  work.  Unfavorable  emotional 
attitude  toward  the  teacher,  the  effects  of  which  we 
have  seen  in  other  cases,  did  not  appear  in  this  series. 

Of  the  34  pupils  for  whom  a  discrepancy  was  found, 
24  were  boys,  although  as  many  girls  as  boys  were 
tested.  This  would  indicate  either  that  teachers 
oftener  misunderstood  boys  and  oftener  under-rate 
their  school  work,  or  that  the  school  performance  of 
boys  is  more  easily  influenced  by  physical  or  emo- 
tional defects  than  that  of  girls. 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    107 

It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  although  the  tests 
were  almost  equally  divided  between  children  of  Ameri- 
can and  foreign  parentage  (chiefly  Portuguese),  the  lat- 
ter account  for  only  11  of  the  34  discrepancies.  It  ap- 
pears, therefore,  that  the  fact  of  foreign  parentage  does 
not  greatly  limit  the  usefulness  of  the  Stanford-Binet 
scale  as  a  measure  of  a  child's  educability.  Several  other 
Stanford  students  have  made  studies  similar  to  that  of 
Miss  Preston's,  involving  in  all  nearly  two  thousand 
Binet  tests.  The  data  show  convincingly  that  in  the 
large  majority  of  casesmental  age  offers  a  fairl 
rate  index  as  to  the  grade  in  which  the  child  is  fitted  to 
do  work  of  average  quality.  The  index  misses  the 
mark  to  the  extent  of  one  grade  in  something  like  six  to 
eight  per  cent  of  cases,  to  the  extent  of  two  grades  in 
not  more  than  one  or  two  per  cent  of  cases.  In  ninety 
cases  out  of  a  hundred  it  is  accurate  enough  for  all 
practical  purposes.  Even  in  those  instances  where  it 
would  be  misleading,  if  taken  as  the  sole  criterion, 
the  Binet  test  offers  the  best  available  starting  point 
for  reaching  an  understanding  of  the  child's  case. 

For  example,  J.  F.  had  been  for  months  doing  very 
Inferior  work  in  the  first  year  of  high  school.  The 
teachers  and  principal  were  at  a  complete  loss  to  un- 
derstand the  case.  Various  remedies  were  tried,  but 
without  effect.  The  boy  claimed  that  he  was  making 
every  effort  to  do  the  work.  Finally  he  was  given  a 
Binet  test  and  was  found  to  have  a  mental  age  well 
above  that  necessary  for  successful  work  in  the  ninth 


108    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

grade.  The  principal  then  called  the  boy  to  his  office, 
explained  to  him  what  the  test  had  revealed  regarding 
his  ability,  and  suggested  that  it  was  time  for  him  to 
"  quit  fooling  "  and  get  down  to  earnest  work.  The 
result  was  an  immediate  and  surprising  improvement 
in  his  class  marks. 

Sometimes  the  fault  lies  not  so  much  in  lack  of  ap- 
plication as  in  failing  self-confidence.  S.  W.,  a  boy  of 
twelve  years,  had  developed  a  sense  of  mental  inferi- 
ority. His  school  work  had  gradually  deteriorated  un- 
til he  was  on  the  point  of  failing.  Although  it  is  ordi- 
narily not  permissible  to  give  a  child  his  Binet  test 
score,  the  principal  wisely  decided  to  do  so  in  this  case. 
The  boy  was  so  encouraged  by  the  information  that  he 
went  to  work  with  a  new  spirit  and  soon  ranked  above 
the  average  in  his  class. 

Whether  the  child  is  working  exactly  up  to  his  ca- 
pacity, or  above  or  below  it,  the  mental  test  is  equally 
necessary.  Ernest,  the  first  of  Miss  Preston's  cases,  is 
doing  fair  work,  although  considerably  below  the  nor- 
mal mental  age  for  his  grade.  Unless  this  is  known 
Ernest's  efforts  cannot  be  correctly  appraised.  In  such 
cases  as  Roy  or  Madeline  the  teacher's  attention  is 
directed  by  the  test  to  the  possible  influence  of  physi- 
cal defect  upon  school  work.  A  discrepancy  like  that 
shown  by  Jennie  and  Donald  calls  attention  to  the 
danger  of  over-rating  the  vivacious  or  under-rating 
the  diffident  child. 

The  case  of  Margaret.     The  case  of  Margaret,  re- 


MENTAL-AGE  STANDARD  FOR  GRADING    109 

ported  by  Strong,  offers  a  classical  example  of  the  use- 
fulness of  mental  tests  in  discovering  the  causes  of 
poor  school  work.1 

Margaret  had  just  failed  of  promotion  from  the  low- 
fourth  grade.  She  was  eleven  years  old,  and  tested  at 
eleven  by  the  Binet  scale.  With  average  normal  abil- 
ity, according  to  the  test,  her  school  work  was  never- 
theless described  by  teachers  as  "  hopeless."  Her  work 
in  arithmetic  and  geography  was  especially  poor. 
From  January  until  May  a  small  amount  of  special 
instruction  was  given  her  by  one  of  Dr.  Strong's  stu- 
dents. Although  the  special  instruction  in  arithmetic 
extended  orer  only  five  months,  and  amounted  to  a 
total  of  o9i  a  few  hours,  Margaret's  advancement 
was  fromWhird-grade  work  to  fifth-grade  work,  as 
shown  by  the  Courtis  tests. 

The  trouble  seems  to  have  been  largely  one  of  emo- 
tional attitude.  When  the  special  instruction  began 
"  she  was  afraid  of  everything;  she  could  do  very  lit- 
tle, she  knew  nothing  positively.  She  held  her  eyes 
down/carried  herself  shrinkingly,  was  a  typical  *  fraid- 
cat.'  —  We  started  with  a  thoroughly  disheartened 
child,  whose  enthusiasm  and  hope  were  about  dead, 
and  who  was  being  taught  many  things  in  school  with- 
out knowing  facts  and  principles  which  should  have 
preceded  these  things.  We  taught  her  the  funda- 
mentals of  arithmetic,  thus  filling  in  all  the  gaps  in  her 

1  "The  Development  of  Proper  Attitudes  toward  School  Work"; 
in  School  and  Society,  December  25,  1915,  vol.  n,  pp.  926-34. 


110    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

knowledge  of  that  subject  up  to  the  work  of  her  class. 
In  doing  so  we  allowed  her  to  see  her  learning  curves. 
The  unmistakable  objective  fact  that  she  was  learning 
made  her  realize  that  she  could  learn,  aroused  her  in- 
terest, gave  her  fresh  enthusiasm,  and  presently  there 
resulted  a  transformed  child.  As  we  have  seen,  the 
transformation  affected  not  only  arithmetic,  but  all 
her  studies,  her  carriage  and  walk,  her  social  attitude 
toward  others,  her  entire  character.  From  being 
hopelessly  at  the  bottom  of  her  class  she  now  has  a 
settled  determination  to  lead  that  class.  From  every 
indication  it  appears  that  the  actually  brighter  chil- 
dren will  have  to  work  to  keep  ahead  of  Margaret." 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS 

SINCE  the  publication  of  Ayres's  book,  Laggards  in 
Our  Schools,1  numerous  statistical  studies  have  been 
made  showing  the  large  proportion  of  children  who 
are  one,  two,  three,  or  more  years  retarded,  and  ana- 
lyzing the  factors  which  are  responsible  for  the  condi- 
tion. It  has  become  a  matter  of  common  information 
that  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  tuition  is  for 
repeated  instruction,  that  about  a  fourth  of  the  pupils 
leave  school  with  not  more  than  a  sixth-grade  educa- 
tion, and  that  the  ranks  of  the  vocationally  incompe- 
tent are  recruited  largely  from  children  who  in  school 
were  over-age  for  their  grade.  Yet  the  problem  re- 
mains. The  number  of  school  laggards  has  decreased 
but  little,  and  their  needs  are  almost  as  little  provided 
for  as  before  the  campaign  in  their  behalf  began. 
The  extent  of  the  problem  will  be  apparent  from  an 
examination  of  typical  statistical  findings. 

The  number  of  over-age  children.  Professor 
Strayer  by  a  uniform  method  secured  data  on  the 
amount  of  retardation  in  132  cities  having  a  popula- 
tion of  more  than  25,000,  and  in  186  cities  having  a 

1  Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools.  1909.  Russell 
Sage  Foundation;  pp.  236. 


112    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


population  less  than  25, 000. l  His  most  important 
results  are  embodied  in  Table  20,  which  show  for  boys 
and  girls  separately  the  average  per  cent  found  re- 
tarded or  accelerated  by  various  amounts.2 


Over- 

Over- 

Over- 

Over- 

Total 

Total 

Normal 

age 

age 

age 

age 

over- 

under- 

Sex 

(per 
cent) 

1  year 
(per 

2  years 
(per 

3  years 
(per 

4  years 
(per 

age 
(per 

age 
(per 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

25,000 

Boys 

56 

20 

10 

5 

2 

38 

4 

(132  cities) 

Girls 

60 

18 

9 

3 

1 

32 

4 

Under  25,000 
(186  cities) 

Boys 
Girls 

54 
56 

20 
18 

11 

8 

4 
3 

2 

1 

38 
36 

4 

5 

Average  for 

all  cities 

and  both 

sexes 

57 

19 

9.5 

8.75 

1.25 

33.5 

4.2B 

TABLE  20.     RETARDATION  IN  318  CITIES.     (Strayer) 


Table  20  shows  that  approximately  one  child  in  three 


is  retarded,  and  only  one  in  twenty-five  accelerated.  More 
than  five  per  cent  are  retarded  three  years  or  more,  and 
nearly  fifteen  per  cent  two  years  or  more. 

The  actual  amount  of  retardation  is  even  greater 
than  the  figures  indicate,  because  of  the  liberal  basis 
on  which  retardation  was  computed.  The  standard 
adopted  by  Professor  Strayer  was  that  used  by  Ayres. 
By  this  standard  a  child  is  considered  as  making  nor- 
mal progress  if  in  the  first  grade  and  not  yet  eight 

1  Strayer,  G.  D.,  Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges. 
Bull.  451,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1911;  pp.  144. 

2  Professor  Strayer  has  omitted  fractional  per  cents,  so  that  the 
combined  totals  do  not  quite  equal  100  per  cent. 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    113 

years  old,  if  in  the  second  grade  and  not  yet  nine  years 
old,  and  so  on.  Although  this  is  the  standard  on 
which  retardation  is  nearly  always  computed,  it  allows 
a  margin  of  a  hah*  year  all  along  the  line.  Actually,  if 
the  child  begins  school  by  the  age  of  six  and  one  half 
years  and  makes  normal  progress,  he  will  be  in  the 
second  grade  by  the  age  of  seven  and  one  half,  in  the 
third  by  the  age  of  eight  and  one  half,  etc.  Counting 
retardation  on  this  basis,  the  figures  for  Salt  Lake 
City,  in  May,  1915,  were  as  follows: 

Over-age  1  year 26 . 7  per  cent 

Over-age  2  years 11.2  per  cent 

Over-age  3  years 3.7  per  cent 

Over-age  4  years  or  more 1.2  per  cent 

Total  over-age 43 .    per  cent 

That  the  retardation  evil  is  not  confined  to  large 
cities  is  shown  by  Strayer's  figures  for  cities  under 
25,000;  also  by  Berry's,  Lurton's,  and  Morton's  statis- 
tics for  small  towns  in  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Ne- 
braska. For  55  cities  and  villages  in  Minnesota,  the 
number  of  children  retarded  one  year  or  more  (Ayres's 
basis  of  reckoning)  was  30.9  per  cent,  and  in  41  graded 
schools  of  the  same  State  the  number  was  33.9  per 
cent.1  The  figures  for  96  cities  and  towns  of  Nebraska,2 
taken  together,  are  as  follows: 

1  Lurton,  F.  E.,  "Retardation  Statistics  from  the  Smaller  Minne- 
sota Towns";  Psychological  Clinic,  1911. 

2  Morton,  W.  H.  S.,  "Retardation  in  Nebraska";  Psychological 
Clinic,  December,  1912,  and  January  19, 1913. 


114    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Total  pupils 25,449 

Retarded  1  year 16 . 3  per  cent 

Retarded  2  years 7.6  per  cent 

Retarded  3  years 3.3  per  cent 

Retarded  4  years  or  more 1.4  per  cent 

Total  retarded 28.6  per  cent 

In  227  cities  and  towns  of  Michigan,  Berry  found  a 
total  of  24  per  cent  retarded,  and  3.5  per  cent  retarded 
three  years  or  more.1 

The  amount  of  retardation  in  rural  schools  seems  to 
be  even  greater  than  in  cities  and  towns.  Gaylor 
found  53.6  per  cent  of  the  children  in  139  rural  schools 
of  an  Illinois  county  at  least  one  year  retarded,  and 
28.4  per  cent  more  than  one  year  retarded.2 

In  11  small  cities  in  Illinois  the  number  retarded 
two  years  or  more  was  20.7  per  cent,  as  compared  with 
28.4  per  cent  in  the  rural  schools. 

Phelps  found  28  per  cent  of  13,626  rural-school  chil- 
dren in  California  retarded  on  the  liberal  standard 
used  by  Ayres.  The  number  retarded  three  or  more 
years  was  2.5  per  cent. 

The  supposed  causes  of  retardation.  Retardation 
cannot  be  properly  dealt  with  until  its  causes  are  un- 
derstood. The  causes  emphasized  by  Ayres  and  the 
majority  of  other  investigators  are  physical  defects, 

1  Berry,  Charles  Scott,  "A  Study  of  Retardation,  Acceleration, 
Elimination,  and  Repetition  in  the  Public  Elementary  Schools  of 
225  Towns  and  Cities  of  Michigan";  Seventy-ninth  Annual  Report  of 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  (Michigan),  1915-16. 

2  Gaylor,  G.  W.,  "Retardation  and  Elimination  in  Graded  and 
Rural  Schools";  Psychological  Clinic,  1910,  pp.  40-45. 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    115 

irregular  attendance,  late  entrance,  too  high  a  stand- 
ard, and  lack  of  flexibility  in  methods  of  promotion. 
The  usual  view  is  expressed  in  the  following  conclu- 
sions which  Dr.  Gulick  drew  from  the  investigation  of 
Ayres:  (1)  "That  the  most  important  causes  of  re- 
tardation can  be  removed  ";  (2)  "  that  relatively  few 
children  are  so  defective  as  to  prevent  success  in 
school  or  life."  These  assumptions  are  contradicted 
by  the  findings  of  all  who  have  investigated  the  sub- 
ject by  the  use  of  mental  tests. 

It  is  interesting  to  examine  the  causes  which  are 
most  often  mentioned  by  teachers  and  superintend- 
ents. In  the  case  of  108  laggards  in  the  Salt  Lake  City 
schools,  the  causes  most  often  named  were  the  follow- 
ing, given  here  in  order  of  frequency  of  mention  by 
teachers:  —  poor  home  condition,  physical  defects, 
transferring  from  another  school,  retarded  mental  de- 
velopment, difficulty  with  the  English  language,  lack 
of  application,  irregular  attendance,  laziness,  late  en- 
trance, and  delinquency. 

Mental  tests  of  these  same  108  children  showed  an 
average  mental  retardation  of  three  years.  The  large 
majority,  indeed,  were  feeble-minded.  Feeble-minded 
children  do  often  come  from  poor  homes,  since  often 
the  parents  of  feeble-minded  children  are  themselves 
feeble-minded.  For  the  same  reason,  feeble-minded 
pupils  shift  frequently  from  one  locality  to  another 
and  attend  irregularly.  Because  such  children  are 
feeble-minded,  they  enter  late,  show  little  applica- 


116    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tion  in  their  school  work,  and  tend  to  become  delin- 
quent. 

Many  similar  questionnaire  studies  have  been  made 
and  their  findings  are  always  essentially  the  same. 
All  kinds  of  supposed  causes  of  retardation  are  empha- 
sized except  the  one  important  cause  —  inferior  men- 
tal ability.  Many  teachers  seem  to  hold  views  some- 
what as  follows:  (1)  All  children  are  either  normal  or 
feeble-minded;  (2)  those  who  are  normal  (i.e.,  not 
feeble-minded)  should  make  standard  school  progress ; 
(3)  those  who  are  feeble-minded  will  bear  readily  rec- 
ognizable ear-marks  of  their  deficiency  and  will  be  un- 
able to  learn  anything.  It  is  not  generally  understood 
that  many  feeble-minded  children  present  a  normal 
appearance;  still  less  that  some  ten  per  cent  of  school 
children  of  perfectly  normal  appearance  have  a  grade 
of  intelligence  which  is  about  halfway  between  that  of 
the  moron  and  the  average  normal  child. 

The  real  cause  of  retardation.  Of  Dickson's  first- 
grade  pupils  who  were  eight  years  old  or  older,  68  per 
cent  were  below  80  I  Q.  Of  Hubbard's  fifth-grade 
pupils  who  were  thirteen  years  old  or  older  (i.e.,  two  or 
more  years  retarded)  64  per  cent  were  below  80  I  Q. 
Of  50  over-age  children  tested  by  Williams  in  three 
California  cities,  50  per  cent  had  an  I  Q  below  80,  and 
32  per  cent  were  below  75.  Of  174  over-age  children 
tested  in  the  schools  of  "  X  "  County,  California,  61 
were  below  70 1  Q,  106  below  81  and  153  below  90.  In 
the  case  of  the  1000  unselected  children  on  whom  the 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    117 


Stanford  Revision  was  based,  97  were  three  or  more 
years  over-age  on  the  Ayres  standard.  Of  these, 
78  per  cent  were  below  80  I  Q.  Conversely,  nearly 
all  of  those  who  were  below  80  I  Q  were  one  or 
more  years  over-age  for  the  grade  in  which  they  were 
located. 

Dozens  of  such  studies,  larger  or  smaller,  could  be 
quoted.  It  is  unnecessary,  for  all  show  the  same 
thing:  namely,  that  the  over-age  child  is  usually  a  dull 
child.  Any  one  who  desires  additional  proof  need  only 
test  a  large  number  of  unselected  children  of  a  given 
chronological  age,  say  twelve  years,  and  note  the 
school  progress  which  those  of  various  mental  ages 
have  made.  Tables  21  and  22  show  this  for  unselected 
children  of  eleven  and  twelve  years. 


Mental 

Grad 

e 

age 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Total 

18  

1 

1 

17 

3 

1 

4 

16  

1 

2 

3 

2 

5 

g 

1 

14 

14  

1 

g 

13 

2 

22 

13 

3 

12 

18 

1 

34 

12  

1 

2 

22 

12 

37 

11  

2 

10 

42 

g 

60 

10  

6 

15 

20 

1 

42 

9  

2 

3 

14 

g 

25 

8. 

1 

5 

g 

2 

14 

7  

1 

1 

3 

5 

g 

1 

1 

5  

1 

1 

Total  

4 

8 

21 

47 

110 

56 

15 

2 

263 

TABLE  21.  GRADE  LOCATION  OF  263  H-YEAB-OLDS  BY  STANFORD- 

BINET  MENTAL  AGE 
These  children  were  all  eleven  years  old,  chronologically.    Correlation  is  .81 


118    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Mental 
age 

.Grade 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Total 

18 

1 
3 

7 
8 
11 
3 

1 

2 
4 
5 
4 

i 

2 
5 
12 
17 
30 
29 
43 
46 
42 
22 
5 
3 
1 

17  

16 

1 
3 
10 
23 
21 
14 
4 

15  

1 
4 
3 
19 
26 
26 
4 
1 

14 

1 

13  

12.       .  . 

2 
5 
10 
9 

1 
1 

11  

1 

2 
7 
3 

10 

9  

1 

1 

g  

7..k  

2 

1 

6  

5  

Total 

4 

1 

13 

29 

84 

76 

33 

17 

257 

TABLE  22.   GRADE  LOCATION  OF  257  12-YEAR-OLDS  BY  STANFORD- 

BINET  MENTAL  AGE 
These  children  were  all  twelve  years  old,  chronologically.    Correlation  is  .855 

In  the  above  tables,  mental  age  6  means  5-6  to  6-5, 
7  means  6-6  to  7-5,  and  so  on.  The  tables  show  that 
intelligence  is  the  chief  factor  determining  the  rate  of 
a  .child's  progress.  It  also  shows  that  the  test  result 
gives  a  fairly  reliable  indication  of  the  school  grade  in 
which  a  child  of  a  given  chronological  age  will  be  able 
to  do  the  work.  The  correlation  between  mental  age 
and  grade  is  .81  for  the  eleven-year-olds,  and  .855  for 
the  twelve-year-olds. 

The  257  pupils  of  the  twelve-year  group  belong  in 
the  sixth  grade  by  chronological  age.  However,  47  are 
in  the  fourth  grade  or  below;  i.e.,  two  or  more  years 
retarded.  All  but  three  of  these  are  mentally  below 
twelve  years,  and  all  but  9  mentally  below  eleven.  Of 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    119 

the  17  twelve-year-olds  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade 
(two  years  accelerated)  all  but  one  are  mentally  four- 
teen or  above.  Similarly  for  the  eleven-year  olds. 
Those  who  are  accelerated  show  a  high  mental  age, 
those  who  are  retarded  test  low. 

Feeble-minded  school  children.  We  have  seen  that 
the  large  majority  of  over-age  children  are  below  aver- 
age intelligence.  Such  children  may  be  classified  as 
dull,  border-line,  or  feeble-minded.  While  the  feeble- 
minded group  is  much  the  smallest  of  the  three,  it 
gives  rise  to  the  most  difficult  educational  and  social 
problems.  What  these  problems  are  can  best  be  il- 
lustrated by  the  results  of  a  typical  survey  of  feeble- 
minded children  in  a  small  school  system.  That  of 
"  X  "  County,  California,  will  serve  the  purpose.1 

"  X "  County  enrolls  somewhat  more  than  five 
thousand  pupils  in  its  public  schools.  Approximately 
twenty  per  cent  of  these  attend  rural  schools  having 
less  than  three  teachers.  The  other  eighty  per  cent 
are  divided  not  very  unequally  among  a  half-dozen 
small  cities.  It  was  not  possible  to  test  all  these  chil- 
dren, nor  was  it  necessary  to  do  so  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain the  approximate  number  of  feeble-minded.  The 
plan  adopted  was  to  test  the  suspected  cases  in  all  the 
rural  schools  of  the  county  and  in  "  Y  "  city,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  obtain  data  from  all  of  the  other 

1  Terinan,  Lewis  M.,  Dickson,  Virgil,  and  Howard,  Lowery. 
The  results  are  published  in  a  bulletin  of  the  California  State 
Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections  entitled  Surveys  in  .Mental 
Deviation,  1918,  pp.  19-45. 


120    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


cities  of  the  county  of  such  a  kind  as  would  indicate 
whether  the  proportion  of  mental  deficiency  in  those 
cities  differed  greatly  from  that  found  in  the  schools 
where  mental  tests  were  given. 

The  first  step  was  to  obtain  from  the  teachers  in- 
formation which  would  make  possible  the  location  of 
suspected  cases.  At  the  request  of  the  county  each 
teacher  furnished  the  following  data  for  each  pupil  en- 
rolled in  her  class:  name,  age,  grade,  years  in  school, 
birthplace  and  occupation  of  parents,  and  ratings  of  the 
child  for  intelligence  and  quality  of  school  work  as  very 
superior,  superior,  average,  inferior,  and  very  inferior. 

The  information  thus  secured  made  it  possible  to 
eliminate  eighty  or  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  children 
from  consideration,  because  of  their  obvious  normal- 
ity. In  most  classrooms  it  was  necessary  to  test  only 
ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  children  in  order  to  avoi(J 
the  risk  of  missing  any  defectives.  In  certain  rooms, 
however,  more  were  tested.  The  rule  followed  was  to 
test  every  child  who  was  rated  by  the  teacher  as  seri- 
ously below  average  in  either  school  work  or  intelli- 
gence, and  to  test  all  who  were  seriously  over-age  foi 
their  grade,  whatever  the  teacher's  rating.  Of  the 
1464  pupils  enrolled  in  the  rural  schools  and  "  Y"  City, 
174  (12  per  cent)  were  tested.  The  resulting  I  Q's 
were  as  follows: 


I  Q... 

40-49 

50-59 

60-69 

70-79 

80-89 

90-99 

100-109 

110-up 

Number  

3 

13 

45 

45 

48 

15 

4 

0 

MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS 


The  majority  of  cases  falling  below  70  may  be  con- 
sidered feeble-minded.  The  range  70-79  is  composed 
largely  of  border-zone  cases.  Those  between  80  and 
89  are  practically  always  normal,  but  dull;  those  be- 
tween 90  and  109  may  be  called  average-normal. 

In  the  classification  of  the  174  suspects  only  those 
were  placed  below  the  border-zone  group  who  were 
rather  definitely  feeble-minded.  Correspondingly, 
those  who  were  above  suspicion  of  feeble-mindedness 
were  placed  above  the  border-zone  group.  On  this 
basis  62  children,  or  4.24  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  of 
1464,  were  classified  as  feeble-minded,  and  29  (1.98 
per  cent)  as  border-zone  cases. 

Grade  progress  of  the  feeble-minded.  The  school 
progress  which  the  62  feeble-minded  children  of  "  X  " 
County  were  making  is  shown  in  Table  23.  In  this 


AGE 

GRADE 

Total 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

6 

2 

2 

7 

2 

2 

8 

3 

1 

4 

9 

2 

1 

3 

10 

3 

3 

6 

11 

2 

1 

3 

1 

7 

12 

2 

1 

5 

2 

1 

11 

13 

2 

3 

3 

4 

2 

14 

14 

3 

2 

2 

7 

15 

1 

1 

1 

3 

16 

2 

1 

3 

Total 

14 

10 

7 

13 

8 

6 

3 

1 

62 

TABLE  23.   AGE-GRADE  LOCATION  OF  62  FEEBLE-MINDED  CHILDREN 


122    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


table,  as  before,  age  6  means  5-6  to  6-5;  age  7  means 
6-6  to  7-5,  etc. 

From  the  facts  set  forth  in  the  above  table  one  could 
safely  infer,  even  without  the  aid  of  mental  tests,  that 
a  majority  of  these  children  are  very  inferior.  More- 
over, for  two  reasons  the  age-grade  distribution  of  the 


GRADE 

Mental 
Age 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Total 

4 

4 

4 

5 

7 

2 

9 

6 

2 

2 

1 

5 

7 

1 

4 

3 

1 

9 

8 

2 

3 

8 

7 

4 

24 

9 

4 

1 

2 

2 

1 

10 

10 

1 

1 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Total 

14 

10 

7 

13 

8 

6 

3 

1 

62 

TABLE  24.  GRADE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  62  FEEBLE-MINDED  CHILDREN 
BY  MENTAL  AGE 


children  represents  their  mental  status  too  favorably : 
(1)  The  younger  feeble-minded  have  not  yet  had  time 
to  fall  below  grade.  The  feeble-minded  of  ages  6  and 
7,  for  example,  are  represented  in  the  table  as  being  up 
to  grade.  (2)  The  majority  of  the  feeble-minded  are  in 
reality  above  the  grade  where  they  can  do  satisfactory 
work.  This  is  seen  in  Table  24,  which  shows  that 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    123 

these  children  who  appear  to  be  so  badly  retarded 
are,  on  the  basis  of  mental  age,  greatly  accelerated. 
While  the  average  retardation  on  the  basis  of  chron- 
ological age  is  2.5  years,  the  average  acceleration  on 
the  basis  of  mental  age  is  2.2  years.1 

Some  exceptionally  difficult  classes.  The  follow- 
ing schools  will  give  an  idea  of  the  problems  which 
face  some  of  the  teachers  of  "  X  "  County: 

Rural  School  A.  Pupils  enrolled,  41.  Of  these,  18  were 
so  seriously  over-age  and  were  rated  so  low  by  the  teacher  as 
to  be  classed  as  suspects.  Of  the  18  tested,  13  were  feeble- 
minded and  3  of  borderline  intelligence.  One  family  fur- 
nished 6  of  the  feeble-minded,  another  4.  The  school  enrolls 
one  pupil  in  the  first  grade  who  is  10  years  old  and  has  been 
in  that  grade  for  four  years.  Two  other  pupils  have  com- 
pleted only  two  grades  in  the  six  years  they  have  attended. 
They  are  now  at  the  age  of  almost  13  years  in  the  low  third 
grade  and  are  doing  unsatisfactory  work  there.  Another 
who  is  16  years  old  and  in  the  seventh  grade  has  only  nine- 
year  intelligence.  His  intelligence  is  barely  equal  to  fourth- 
grade  work. 

Rural  School  B.  Eighty-four  pupils,  3  teachers.  Of  the 
12  children  tested  as  suspects,  4  were  feeble-minded,  5  were 
border-zone  cases,  and  3  were  dull-normal.  One  family 
furnished  a  moron  and  a  border-liner;  another  furnished  a 
moron,  a  border-liner,  and  a  dull-normal.  A  moron  girl  in 
this  school  has  an  insane  mother.  The  girl  is  normally  at- 
tractive in  appearance  and  has  reached  the  stage  of  ado- 
lescence. 

Room  P,  City  "  Y."  This  is  a  fourth-grade  class  enrolling 
39  pupils,  23  of  whom  are  over-age  for  their  grade.  Five  of 
these  are  from  three  to  five  years  retarded.  The  ages  of  the 

1  Compare  Tables  23  and  24  with  Tables  28  to  35,  pp.  159-162. 


124    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

39  pupils  range  from  9  years  to  16  years.  Of  5  suspects 
tested  in  this  room,  2  were  feeble-minded  and  3  border-zone 
cases.  Another,  the  lowest  of  all  according  to  the  teach- 
er's estimate,  was  absent  and  could  not  be  tested. 

Although  these  three  schools  represent  an  extreme 
situation,  there  are  undoubtedly  thousands  of  teach- 
ers in  the  United  States  whose  problem  is  made  fully 
as  difficult  by  the  presence  of  backward  and  feeble- 
minded children.  Sometimes  the  teacher's  position  is 
jeopardized  because  of  her  inability  to  give  such  pupils 
the  expected  mastery  of  school  work.  Often  she  is 
penalized  if  her  percentage  of  failure  is  much  higher 
than  the  average.  Everywhere  the  emphasis  is  on 
keeping  children  up  to  grade,  rather  than  on  finding 
work  which  is  suited  to  their  abilities. 

How  many  children  are  feeble-minded  ?  In  "  X  " 
County  the  proportion  of  feeble-minded  children  is 
not  far  from  four  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment. 
Fortunately  this  is  an  exceptional  condition.  The 
proportion  usually  found  is  between  one  and  three  per 
cent.  In  a  partial  survey  of  mental  deficiency  in  the 
schools  of  San  Luis  Obispo,  California,  we  found  two 
per  cent  of  the  school  children  mentally  defective. 
The  Stanford  tests  of  1000  unselected  children  in  five 
cities  gave  one  per  cent  below  70  I  Q,  and  two  and 
one  half  per  cent  below  75  I  Q.  Probably  one  and 
one  half  per  cent  of  the  1000  cases  were  feeble-minded. 
Among  Dickson's  first-grade  children  the  proportion 
of  mental  deficiency  was  very  considerably  higher 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    125 

than  this.  Of  Hubbard's  79  fifth-grade  pupils,  4 
tested  below  70  I  Q. 

Other  investigators  in  large  number  have  found 
similar  ratios  of  mental  deficiency.  After  an  excep- 
tionally thorough  study  of  feeble-mindedness  in  the 
public  schools  of  Oakland,  California,  Mrs.  Hicks 
classifies  three  per  cent  of  the  children  of  that  city 
as  feeble-minded.  Dr.  Macfie  Campbell's  survey  of  a 
certain  district  in  Baltimore  resulted  in  a  classifica- 
tion of  three  per  cent  as  having  "  pronounced  mental 
defect."  Dr.  Goddard,  after  a  number  of  investiga- 
tions in  eastern  cities,  including  New  York  City,  esti- 
mates that  about  two  per  cent  of  the  school  children 
in  any  average  city  will  be  found  feeble-minded. 

Strikingly  similar  results  have  been  found  for  sev- 
eral rural  districts.  Dr.  Wilhelmine  Key,  in  a  study 
of  a  county  in  Northeastern  Pennsylvania,  finds  3.2 
per  cent  of  the  population  mentally  defective.  In  a 
survey  of  mental  deficiency  in  Porter  County,  Indi- 
ana, by  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service, 
2185  children  were  given  a  Binet  test.  Approxi- 
mately one  per  cent  were  classified  as  feeble-minded, 
and  another  large  group  as  doubtful.  A  similar  in- 
vestigation was  made  by  the  United  States  Public 
Health  Service  in  New  Castle  County,  Delaware. 
Abbreviated  mental  tests  were  given  to  all  the  3793 
children  enrolled,  and  on  the  basis  of  these  tests  the 
seriously  retarded  cases  were  sifted  out  for  a  com- 
plete Binet  test.  As  a  result,  1.8  per  cent  were  class- 


126    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

ified  as  being  of  institutional  grade,  not  counting 
about  a  fifth  of  1  per  cent  who  were  epileptic.  We  can 
conclude  then  that  on  an  average  two  or  three  children 
out  of  a  hundred  are  so  poorly  endowed  in  intellectual 
ability  as  to  render  their  social  competency  a  matter  of 
extreme  doubt. 

This  figure  should  not  be  surprising,  considering 
the  number  of  children  who  are  over-age  three  years 
or  more.  The  following  per  cents  on  this  point  are 
typical : 

Over-age  Over-age 

8  years  4  years 

or  more  or  more 

(per  cent)  (per  cent) 

318  cities  (Strayer)  5.25  1.5 

Salt  Lake  City  (Survey  Report)  4.9  1.2 

96  Nebraska  cities  and  towns  (Morton)  4.7  1.4 

227  Michigan  cities  and  towns  (Berry)  3 .  ? 

13,626  California  rural  school  children  (Phelps)  2.5  1 . 

"X"  County,  California  (Terman)  5.2  2. 

Probably  eighty  per  cent  of  those  who  are  retarded 
four  years  or  more,  and  fifty  per  cent  of  those 
retarded  three  years  or  more,  are  feeble-minded. 
Many  others  are  feeble-minded  who  have  not  at- 
tended school  long  enough  to  become  seriously  re- 
tarded. In  "  X  "  County  fifty-eight  per  cent  of  the 
feeble-minded  were  not  more  than  two  years  over-age. 

Criteria  of  mental  deficiency.  Certain  statements 
made  in  the  preceding  discussion  may  appear  to  be 
based  on  the  assumption  that  all  children  may  be  class- 
ified as  definitely  normal  in  intelligence  or  definitely 
feeble-minded.  No  such  assumption,  however,  has 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    127 

been  intended.  The  distribution  of  mental  ability  is 
"  continuous,"  by  which  is  meant  that  there  is  no  defi- 
nite line  of  demarcation  between  the  imbecile,  the 
moron,  the  dull,  and  the  normal.  Each  group  shades 
into  the  other  by  imperceptible  degrees.  The  num- 
ber of  individuals  to  be  classified  as  feeble-minded 
will  depend  largely  on  the  standard  of  classification 
used.  When  75  I  Q  is  taken  as  the  dividing  line,  the 
number  of  feeble-minded  is  about  two  and  a  half  times 
as  great  as  when  70  I  Q  is  taken.  If  65  I  Q  is  used, 
the  ratio  of  feeble-mindedness  is  greatly  reduced. 

The  different  standards  employed  have  given  rise 
to  serious  disagreements  among  psychologists  as  to 
the  proportion  of  feeble-mindedness  in  various  social 
groups.  The  disagreement  comes  from  the  fact  that 
the  term  "  feeble-mindedness  "  is  currently  used  in 
two  very  different  senses.  In  one  sense  it  refers  to 
the  possession  of  no  more  than  a  certain  degree  of  men- 
tal (chiefly  intellectual)  capacity,  as  measured  by  some 
objective  scale.  This  is  the  psychological  definition. 
As  commonly  employed,  the  term  "  feeble-minded  " 
has  reference  primarily  to  those  who,  because  of  in- 
herent or  early  acquired  mental  weakness,  "  cannot 
compete  on  equal  terms  with  their  fellows,"  or  "  can- 
not manage  themselves  or  their  affairs  with  ordinary 
prudence."  This  is  the  social  criterion.  These  two 
criteria,  the  psychological  and  the  social,  cannot  be 
used  interchangeably  for  the  reason  that  ability  to  get 
on  in  the  world  depends  upon  many  things  besides 


128    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

absolute  mental  capacity,  such  as  health,  looks,  bear- 
ing, muscular  strength,  inherited  wealth,  sympathetic 
friends,  economic  and  industrial  conditions,  the  pre- 
vailing level  of  intelligence  in  those  with  whom  the 
subject  must  compete,  etc.  However,  experience 
shows  that,  on  any  reasonable  standard  as  to  what 
constitutes  social  competency,  the  outlook  for  chil- 
dren who  test  below  70 1  Q  is  anything  but  favorable. 
Feeble-mindedness  and  dullness  not  curable. 
The  classification  of  school  children  as  "  feeble-minded  " 
or  "  dull  "  can  only  be  valid  in  case  it  is  fpund  that  the 
individual  who  tests  low  at  an  early  age  will  continue 
to  test  low  in  succeeding  years.  As  is  shown  in  chap- 
ter IX,  re-tests  of  children  after  long  intervals  indi- 
cate that  a  child's  brightness  or  dullness  remains 
surprisingly  constant.1  The  following  re-tests  are 
typical: 

F.  C.,  middle-grade  imbecile,  tested  as  follows: 
Age  8-6,  mental  age  4-0, 1  Q  47; 
Age  10-8,  mental  age  5-4, 1  Q  50. 

V.  J.,  high  grade  moron,  tested  as  follows: 

Age  8-6,  mental  age  6-0, 1  Q  71,  grade  1; 
Age  9-4,  mental  age  6-9, 1  Q  72,  grade  2; 
Age  11-6,  mental  age  8-4, 1  Q  73,  grade  3; 
Age  12-4,  mental  age  8-10, 1  Q  72,  grade  3. 

H.  V.,  dull  normal,  tested  as  follows: 

Age  11-0,  mental  age  8-10, 1  Q  80.5,  grade  4; 
Age  14-11,  mental  age  11-8, 1  Q  78,  grade  low  7. 

1  See  Figures  21  and  22  in  chapter  ix,  showing  growth  curves  of 
dull  and  feeble-minded  children. 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    129 

Grade  expectancy  of  the  feeble-minded.  Because 
of  the  tendency  of  the  I  Q  to  remain  constant,  it  is 
possible  to  forecast  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  ac- 
curacy the  highest  grade  in  which  a  dull  or  feeble- 
minded child  will  ever  be  able  to  do  satisfactory  work. 
It  has  been  found  that  after  the  chronological  age  of 
fifteen  or  sixteen  years  the  mental  age  increases  little 
if  at  all.  Making  allowance  for  minor  changes  of  a 
few  points  in  I  Q  we  are  able  on  this  basis  to  make 
such  predictions  as  the  following: 

The  child  who  tests  at  60  I  Q  will  in  all  probability 
never  go  beyond  the  mental  age  of  nine  or  ten  years 
(sixty  per  cent  of  16  years  =  9.6  years).  Such  a  child 
will  never  be  able  to  do  good  work  above  the  third  or 
fourth  grade,  although  by  the  age  of  sixteen  he  is 
likely  to  be  found  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade,  promoted 
there  because  of  age  and  size. 

The  child  who  tests  at  70  I  Q  may  ultimately  reach 
a  mental  age  of  about  eleven  years,  which  corresponds 
roughly  to  median  fifth-grade  ability.  Such  a  child  by 
the  age  of  sixteen  may  be  able  to  do  fair  work  in  the 
sixth  grade,  after  much  repetition,  but  is  likely  to  be 
carried  by  the  lockstep  of  the  school  a  couple  of  grades 
beyond  this.  However,  we  have  found  no  I  Q  of  70 
in  the  high  school. 

An  I  Q  of  80  means  an  ultimate  mental  age  of  ap- 
proximately twelve  and  one  hah0  years.  A  child  of  the 
80  class  will  at  best  be  able,  by  the  time  mental 
growth  has  ceased,  to  do  fair  or  average  work  in  the 


130    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

seventh  grade.  A  mechanical  system  of  promotion 
and  sympathy  for  his  retarded  condition  may  be  ex- 
pected to  land  him  in  the  eighth  grade,  or  if  he  re- 
mains in  school  long  enough,  even  in  the  first  or  sec- 
ond year  of  the  high  school.  However,  such  a  child 
will  never  be  able  to  do  the  work  of  the  average  high 
school  with  any  degree  of  satisfaction. 

The  child  who  tests  at  90  is  near  enough  the  average 
to  make  normal  or  almost  normal  progress  through  the 
eight  grades,  although  there  is  some  likelihood  of  his 
incurring  retardation  of  a  half  year  to  a  year.  Such  a 
child,  if  persistent,  may  also  be  expected  to  graduate 
from  high  school,  although  the  difficulty  of  making 
normal  progress  there  is  somewhat  greater  than  in  the 
grades  below  the  high  school,  due  to  the  fact  that  his 
competitors  in  the  high  school  are  selected  pupils. 

Those  testing  between  70  and  80  (about  five  per 
cent  of  all  children)  compose  the  group  which  offers 
the  most  difficult  educational  problem.  The  majority 
of  this  group  are  not  sufficiently  subnormal  to  warrant 
their  commitment  to  an  institution,  nor  are  they  able 
to  profit  normally  from  the  regular  work  of  the  school. 
They  furnish  the  bulk  of  those  who  by  the  age  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  are  two  to  four  grades  retarded.  As 
noticeably  over-age  pupils,  they  are  the  object  of 
every  one's  sympathy.  Because  of  the  universal  desire 
to  keep  the  retardation  figures  low,  they  are  over- 
promoted  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  rarely  able 
to  master  their  lessons.  Tables  29  and  30  (pp.  159, 160) 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    131 

show  the  grade  location  of  children  testing  between  70 
and  79.  Practically  the  only  pupils  in  these  tables  do- 
ing satisfactory  work  were  those  who  were  in  a  grade 
corresponding  closely  to  the  mental  age.  Those  whose 
grade  location  corresponded  to  chronological  age  were 
almost  never  doing  work  of  average  quality  for  the 
grade. 

Limitations  of  the  special  class.  The  remedy  which 
has  been  most  often  urged  for  the  ills  of  the  over-age 
child  is  the  special  class.  Although  one  or  more  such 
classes  are  to  be  found  in  nearly  all  the  larger  cities, 
the  number  is  never  sufficient  to  take  care  of  more 
than  a  small  fraction  of  the  children  who  should  at- 
tend them.  To  provide  special  teachers  enough  for  all 
the  seriously  over-age  children  on  the  usual  basis  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  pupils  per  teacher  is  quite  out  of  the 
question.  The  most  that  the  best  cities  have  done  is 
only  a  beginning.  Even  if  the  special  class  were  as 
effective  educationally  as  its  most  enthusiastic  cham- 
pions claim,  it  would  still  be  an  impossible  solution  of 
the  problem  because  of  the  prohibitive  cost.  More- 
over, the  question  inevitably  arises  whether  the  ulti- 
mate returns  to  society  would  not  be  greater  if  any 
funds  available  beyond  those  necessary  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  regular  classes  were  used  to  provide  special 
opportunity  for  children  who  are  gifted. 

One  way  to  reduce  the  cost  of  special  class  instruc- 
tion, which  at  present  is  about  three  times  as  high 
as  in  the  regular  class,  is  to  establish  central  schools 


132    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

exclusively  for  backward  children.  When  the  pupils 
are  graded  according  to  ability  and  type  of  defect,  a 
class  of  twenty -five  presents  a  no  more  difficult  prob- 
lem than  a  class  of  fifteen  which  enrolls  children  who 
are  feeble-minded,  epileptic,  incorrigible,  or  physically 
handicapped  as  well  as  those  who  are  merely  back- 
ward. 

Vocational  training  for  backward  children.  How- 
ever, the  administrative  aspects  of  the  problem  are 
secondary  to  the  pedagogical.  The  important  task  for 
the  school  is  to  provide  the  kind  of  instruction  suited 
to  the  capacity  of  inferior  minds.  Whether  this  is  done 
by  grouping  the  regular  class  into  sections  according 
to  ability,  or  by  providing  special  classes,  graded  or 
ungraded,  does  not  greatly  matter.  The  danger  inhe- 
rent in  the  present  costly  mode  of  attack  is  that  we 
may  exhaust  all  our  good  will  on  a  handful  of  feeble- 
minded, and  leave  practically  untouched  the  infinitely 
larger  and  more  important  problem  of  providing  the 
dull  with  a  kind  of  training  which  will  make  them  so- 
cial and  industrial  assets.  The  feeble-minded,  in  the 
sense  of  social  incompetents,  are  by  definition  a  bur- 
den rather  than  an  asset,  not  only  economically  but 
still  more  because  of  their  tendencies  to  become  delin- 
quent or  criminal.  To  provide  them  with  costly  in- 
struction for  a  few  years,  and  then  turn  them  loose 
upon  society  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  for  reproduction 
and  crime,  can  hardly  be  accepted  as  an  ultimate 
solution  of  the  problem.  The  only  effective  way  to 


MENTAL  TESTS  OF  SCHOOL  LAGGARDS    133 

deal  with  the  hopelessly  feeble-minded  is  by  perma- 
nent custodial  care.  The  obligations  of  the  public 
school  rest  rather  with  the  larger  and  more  hopeful 
group  of  children  who  are  merely  inferior. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  individuals 
of  inferior  intelligence  are  not  necessarily  undesirable 
members  of  society.  Indeed,  the  world  has  abundant 
use  for  them.  A  large  proportion  of  the  tasks  in  the 
modern  organization  of  industries  can  be  as  well  per- 
formed by  individuals  of  the  70  or  75  I  Q  class  as  by 
those  of  superior  intelligence,  and  with  more  satisfac- 
tion in  the  performance.  Mentality  of  eleven  years  is 
ample  for  ordinary  kinds  of  unskilled  labor,  and  many 
of  the  semi-skilled  trades  are  within  the  reach  of  those 
who  test  a  year  or  two  higher. 

To  make  the  most  of  this  grade  of  ability,  however, 
it  must  be  trained.  For  children  who  test  below  75 
or  80  I  Q,  genuine  vocational  training  should  largely 
replace  the  usual  curriculum  of  the  upper  grammar 
grades.  Nothing  beyond  a  certain  amount  of  relief  to 
the  regular  teacher  is  gained  by  segregating  them  in 
special  classes,  unless  their  course  of  study  is  at  the 
same  time  vocationalized.  Merely  the  introduction  of 
a  little  basketry  or  other  "  handwork  "  does  not  serve 
the  purpose.  Although  there  are  occasional  happy  ex- 
ceptions to  the  rule,  the  average  special  class  gives  the 
backward  child  little  that  will  be  of  direct  service  to 
him  in  the  world.  Often,  indeed,  it  gives  him  little  or 
nothing  beyond  the  scope  of  the  regular  curriculum. 


134    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

The  following  case  is  a  typical  illustration  of  the 
school's  problem  in  dealing  with  over-age  children: 

M.  is  a  Portuguese  boy  of  16  years.  We  first  tested  him 
when  he  was  10  years  of  age.  His  I  Q  was  74.  He  was  in 
the  third  grade,  where  his  work  was  very  unsatisfactory.  We 
tested  him  again  when  he  was  14i  years  old  and  in  the  sixth 
grade.  At  this  time  his  mental  age  was  10-5  and  his  I  Q  72. 
As  would  be  expected,  his  work  in  the  sixth  grade  was  very 
inferior.  By  mental  age  he  belonged  in  the  high-fourth  or 
low-fifth  grade.  Recently  M.  left  school  at  the  age  of  16 
years,  after  promotion  to  the  seventh  grade.  It  is  certain 
that  had  M.  remained  in  school  indefinitely,  he  would  never 
have  been  able  to  master  the  work  required  for  graduation 
from  the  eighth  grade.  The  school  which  he  attended  (a  rural 
school)  had  done  all  it  could  for  him  by  the  usual  methods. 
His  teachers  were  unusually  capable  and  conscientious.  He 
had  been  given  a  fair  trial  at  the  regular  curriculum  and,  in 
spite  of  his  best  efforts,  for  M.  is  an  industrious  lad,  he 
could  not  make  headway  with  it.  He  goes  out  into  the  world 
with  no  further  equipment  from  his  schooling  than  the  abil- 
ity to  read,  write,  and  do  the  fundamental  operations  in 
arithmetic.  Some  children  who  test  as  low  as  M.  would  be 
rated  as  feeble-minded.  No  psychologist  would  so  classify  M. 
Intellectually  inferior  he  certainly  is,  but  as  far  as  his  intelli- 
gence goes,  it  is  sound.  About  ordinary  affairs  his  judgment 
is  dependable,  and  he  is  steady,  industrious  and  anxious  to 
make  good.  There  are  probably  many  kinds  of  semi-skilled 
work  in  which  he  could  succeed.  For  none  of  these  has  he  re- 
ceived any  preparation.  After  nine  years  in  school,  he  faces 
the  world  with  no  vocational  asset  but  his  God-given  brawn. 
There  are  approximately  a  million  children  like  M.  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  United  States.1 

1  For  other  descriptions  of  dull  and  feeble-minded  children  see 
Terman,  Lewis  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  (Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  1916),  pp.  82-94. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  I  Q  AS  A  BASIS  FOR  PREDICTION 

Prediction  the  essence  of  science.  The  essential 
characteristic  of  scientific  knowledge  is  that  it  can  be 
used  as  a  means  of  predicting  what  will  happen  when 
certain  conditions  are  given.  Primitive  man  lived 
largely  in  a  world  of  apparently  chance  events.  The 
progress  of  enlightenment  is  measured  by  man's  ability 
to  find  law  and  order  in  what  seems  to  be  but  a  chaos 
of  happenings.  The  sciences  of  physics  and  chemistry, 
for  example,  have  made  possible  thousands  of  predic- 
tions as  to  what  will  inevitably  occur  in  the  interaction 
of  forces  and  elements,  given  such  and  such  conditions. 
The  passage  of  a  current  of  electricity  through  water 
according  to  a  certain  procedure  always  gives  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen.  A  bridge  constructed  of  given  mate- 
rials according  to  given  specifications  will  be  able  to 
withstand  a  certain  definite  amount  of  strain  which 
can  be  foretold  with  reasonable  accuracy. 

The  sciences  that  have  to  do  with  living  matter,  the 
organic  sciences,  have  developed  more  tardily  than  the 
inorganic.  The  introduction  of  the  scientific  element 
into  economics,  sociology,  education,  and  psychology 
is  still  more  recent  and  far  less  complete.  Education, 
especially,  remains  almost  wholly  on  an  empirical 
basis.  Teachers  have  been  too  content  to  believe 


136    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

in  "  miracles,"  instead  of  searching  for  the  order 
and  inevitable  sequence  which  will  make  prediction 
possible.  Some  teachers  even  seem  to  prefer  empiri- 
cism to  science,  and  to  derive  satisfaction  from  the 
fact  that  child  nature  contains  so  many  unknown 
quantities.  To  such  persons  the  proposal  to  develop 
a  science  of  mental  growth  which  would  enable  us  to 
forecast  a  child's  future  may  even  seem  repugnant.  It 
runs  counter  to  the  deep-seated  and  blind  faith  that 
anything  is  possible  for  any  child;  that  the  material 
with  which  education  works  is  uniform;  and  that 
processes  alone  count. 

Compared  to  the  obvious  variety  of  the  world  of 
adults,  with  its  healthy  and  its  sickly,  its  geniuses  and 
its  incompetents,  its  moral  leaders  and  its  criminals, 
the  world  of  cradle  or  schoolroom  does  indeed  present 
a  homogeneous  aspect.  But  the  uniformity  is  one  of 
appearance  only.  Mental  tests  are  showing  that  the 
variety  is  there,  and  that  it  bears  certain  definite  rela- 
tions to  the  variety  found  among  adults.  To  the  ex- 
tent that  differences  among  children  are  measureable, 
and  to  the  extent  that  these  differences  tend  to  per- 
sist, prediction  is  possible.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  one  of  the  most  fundamental  problems  of  psy- 
chology is  that  of  investigating  the  laws  of  mental 
growth.  When  these  laws  are  known,  the  door  of  the 
future  will  in  a  measure  be  opened;  determination  of 
the  child's  present  status  will  enable  us  to  forecast 
what  manner  of  adult  he  will  become.  The  entire 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION  137 

program  of  educational  treatment  which  should  be 
accorded  a  given  child  hinges  on  such  possibility  of 
prediction. 

Limitations  of  prediction  in  psychology.  It  must  be 
admitted,  however,  that  the  laws  governing  the  devel- 
opment of  many  mental  traits  are  still  little  understood, 
and  that  tools  for  their  exact  measurement  are  far  from 
satisfactory.  We  shall  concern  ourselves  here  only 
with  the  prediction  of  future  intellectual  status.  The 
Standardization  of  the  Binet  scale  on  the  basis  of  age- 
norms  makes  it  a  suitable  instrument  for  the  investiga- 
tion of  mental-growth  curves.  By  applying  it  re- 
peatedly to  the  same  children,  we  can  find  out  whether 
constancy  or  irregularity  rules.  Prediction  hinges  on 
the  question  whether  a  child  who  is  found  by  the  test 
to  be  a  given  per  cent  above  or  below  the  mental  level 
normal  for  his  age  continues  to  be  accelerated  or  re- 
tarded to  the  same  degree.  The  answer  is  found  in  the 
extent  to  which  the  I  Q  remains  constant. 

Before  presenting  our  data  on  re-tests  there  is  one 
point  that  should  be  made  clear;  namely,  that  minor 
discrepancies  in  the  results  of  successive  tests  do  not 
necessarily  imply  corresponding  irregularity  of  mental 
growth.  Mental  measurements  are  not  and  never  will 
be  made  with  the  exactness  which  is  possible  in  the 
physical  sciences.  "  Accidental  "  and  imponderable 
factors  are  always  present  to  invalidate  the  result  in 
some  degree.  This  would  be  true  even  if  the  measuring 
scale  itself  were  perfect,  for  the  child  himself  is  a  more 


138    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

or  less  variable  factor.  His  performance  in  the  tests 
may  be  influenced  by  conditions  of  health,  the  previous 
night's  sleep,  fatigue,  timidity,  anxiety,  grief,  attitude 
toward  the  examiner,  or  other  special  conditions. 
When  the  different  tests  of  the  same  individual  are 
made  by  different  examiners,  we  have  the  additional 
disturbing  influence  of  the  personal  equation  in  giving 
and  scoring  the  tests. 

Some  have  argued  that  such  accidental  influences 
largely  invalidate  the  results  of  mental  testing.  Such 
persons  take  it  for  granted  that  an  average  child  may 
test  like  a  dullard  if  he  is  fatigued  or  sleepy,  and  that 
similar  factors  beyond  our  control  may  reduce  the 
performance  of  a  genius  to  the  level  of  mediocrity.  The 
question  is  one  of  fact.  The  results  of  re-tests  show 
that,  while  theoretically  all  these  influences  may  be 
present  in  some  degree,  their  combined  influence  is  in 
most  cases  small. 

Constancy  of  I  Q  as  shown  by  re-tests.  Re-tests 
have  been  given  to  315  children  in  the  vicinity  of  Stan- 
ford University.  To  46  of  these  children  three  or  more 
tests  have  been  given.  In  case  of  a  child  tested  several 
times,  each  test  has  been  compared  with  each  of  the 
others;  for  example,  the  first  test  with  the  second, 
third  and  fourth  separately,  the  second  test  with  the 
third  and  fourth  separately,  and  the  third  test  with 
the  fourth.  This  gives  in  all  435  I  Q  comparisons. 

The  re-tests  were  not  made  as  a  separate  investiga- 
tion, but  are  such  as  have  accumulated  as  a  result  of 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION  139 

various  mental  test  studies  carried  on  by  many  differ- 
ent Stanford  University  students  over  a  period  of 
years.  For  this  reason  the  tests  were  made  under  an 
extraordinary  variety  of  conditions.  Thirty-three  ex- 
aminers contributed  to  the  total  number  of  tests.1 
Only  twenty-eight  per  cent  of  the  earlier  and  later 
tests  were  given  by  the  same  individual.  There  was 
no  uniformity  as  regards  time  of  day,  place  of  testing, 
freedom  from  distractions,  etc. 

The  intervals  between  tests  ranged  from  one  day  to 
seven  years  and  classify  as  follows : 

Less  than  1  year 86 

1  to  3  years 138 

3  to  5  years 85 

More  than  5  years 127 

The  ages  of  the  subjects,  counted  at  the  time  of  the 
earlier  of  two  compared  tests,  were  as  follows : 

3  to    5-11 99 

6  to    8-11 139 

9  to  11-11 134 

12  to  14-11 55 

Above  15 8 

1  Irene  Cuneo 148 

Terman Ill 

H.  G.  Childs :  99 

Laura  Herron 46 

J.  H.  Williams 40 

L.  S.  Stockton 37 

Dorothy  Albrecht 36 

Mary  B.  Chamberlain 34 

Lowery  Howard 18 

W.  M.  Proctor 17 

R.  S.  Roberts 15 

Blanche  Cummings 11 

21  examiners,  1  to  8  each 78 


140    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

The  effect  of  the  varying  ages,  also  of  wide  intervals 
between  tests,  would  presumably  be  to  reduce  correla- 
tions. The  normal  child  who  is  reexamined  after  an 
interval  of  five  or  six  years  earns  his  second  mental  age 
on  other  tests  of  the  Binet  scale  than  those  taken  in 
the  first  examination. 

If  the  tests  in  the  one  or  the  other  part  of  the  scale 
are  not  properly  standardized,  there  will  be  a  dis- 
crepancy between  the  two  I  Q's  due  to  this  extraneous 
factor.  We  have  therefore  treated  the  various  ages 
and  intervals  separately.  Since  the  tendency  for  I  Q 
to  increase  or  decrease  might  be  expected  to  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  brightness  of  the  child,  the  I  Q  groups 
of  89  or  below,  90  to  109,  and  110  or  above,  have 
also  been  treated  separately. 

Table  25  shows  the  frequency  of  various  amounts  of 
I  Q  change  in  the  different  groups  of  children  classified 
(1)  according  to  interval  between  the  tests,  (2)  accord- 
ing to  age  at  the  time  the  earlier  test  was  given,  and 
(3)  according  to  brightness.  Increases  in  I  Q  of  later 
as  compared  with  earlier  tests  are  tabulated  as  + 
changes,  decreases  as  —  changes. 

Table  25  shows  that  it  makes  little  difference 
whether  the  child  was  bright,  average,  or  dull,  how 
long  an  interval  separated  the  tests,  or  what  the  age 
of  the  child  was  at  the  earlier  test.  The  majority  of  the 
changes  are  for  all  groups  relatively  small.  The  salient 
facts  for  the  entire  series  of  re-tests  may  be  summa- 
rized as  follows: 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION 


141 


Interval 

Age  at  first  test 

I  Q  Group 

"S3 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(?) 

(8) 

(9) 

(10) 

(11)  (12) 

(13) 

02 

Change 

2 

2 

or 

0" 

HH 

o- 

0 

CO  ^ 

in  IQ 

1 

rf 

2 

2 

1 

2 

3 

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8 

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g  | 

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3 

8 

2 

2 

t- 

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13 

be 

£ 

1 

1 

1 

§ 
I 

I 

H 

1 

1 

Is 

Above  +20 

•• 

2 

1 

l 

•• 

1 

1 

2 

+19 

i 

1 

1 

'i 

-pj*/ 

+17 

+16 
+15 

i 

i 

2 

1 
1 

i 

1 
1 

2 

i 

i 

* 

2 
1 
3 

1 

'i 

1 
1 

2 

3 
2 
3 

U14 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

*"l     *  * 

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i 

1 

2 

1 

i 

2 

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i 

2 

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1 

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1 

3 

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5 

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4 

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3 

1 

4 

J 

6 

1 

2 

'3 

i 

9 

-  7 

3 

7 

3 

7 

6 

3 

8 

3 

6 

8 

6 

4 

2 

20 

-  6 

1 

6 

2 

5 

3 

4 

5 

2 

3 

7 

4 

1 

1 

14 

-  5 

2 

4 

2 

1 

3 

2 

3 

1 

4 

1 

4 

1 

9 

-  4 

6 

8 

3 

1 

9 

1 

5 

3 

7 

5 

6 

2 

'2 

18 

-  3 

3 

6 

8 

7 

4 

5 

13 

2 

11 

6 

6 

5 

23 

-  2 

2 

6 

5 

4 

3 

3 

9 

2 

9 

6 

3 

7 

18 

L-   1 

7 

10 

1 

5 

4 

10 

6 

3 

15 

4 

4 

8 

'2 

23 

0 

7 

8 

6        5 

8 

4 

11 

5 

8 

11 

7 

4 

5 

26 

-  1 

3 

6 

6 

3 

2 

5 

8 

3 

5 

6 

7 

4 

18 

-  2 

7 

6 

2 

5 

6 

5 

7 

2 

6 

7 

7 

i 

4 

20 

-  3 

6 

5 

9 

14 

5 

18 

8 

3 

16 

10 

8 

5 

1 

34 

-  4 

4 

7 

1 

13 

3 

11 

7 

4 

8 

13 

4 

4 

3 

25 

-  5 

1 

6 

4 

6 

2 

7 

4 

4 

10 

4 

3 

6 

1 

17 

-  G 

2 

7 

3 

3 

3 

7 

3 

2 

7 

6 

2 

2 

15 

-  7 

8 

6 

4 

11 

G 

14 

7 

2 

14 

8 

7 

5 

'i 

29 

-  8 

5 

3 

2 

9 

3 

8 

4 

4 

8 

8 

3 

2 

i 

19 

-  9 

1 

5 

1 

5 

2 

7 

2 

1 

6 

3 

3 

2 

12 

-10 

2 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

2 

4 

3 

2 

7 

-11 

2 

i 

4 

1 

3 

3 

2 

4 

i 

1 

7 

-12 

2 

2 

1 

'3 

3 

1 

4 

-13 

3 

3 

2 

1 

2 

1 

4 

i 

5 

2 

8 

-14 

1 

1 

5 

1 

3 

2 

1 

2 

4 

1 

2 

7 

-15 

0 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

-1G 

2 

1 

3 

2 

1 

3 

-17 

0 

2 

i 

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2 

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2 

i 

1 

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1 

i 

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1 

3 

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o 

-20 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

2 

Below  -20 

3 

2 

'2 

3 

3 

1 

i 

2 

'4 

"2 

'i 

7 

Total  .... 

86 

128 

84 

127 

99 

139 

134 

63 

83 

147 

104 

81 

31 

435 

TABLE  25.  SHOWING  I  Q  CHANGES  FOR  CHILDREN  RE-TESTED 
AFTER  DIFFERENT  INTERVALS,  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  DIFFERENT 
AGES,  AND  FOB  CHILDREN  OF  VARIOUS  DEGREES  OF  BRIGHTNESS 


142    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

(1)  The  central  tendency  of  change  is  represented  by  an  in- 
crease of  1.7  in  I  Q  ; 

(2)  The  middle  fifty  per  cent  of  changes  lies  between  the 
limits  of  3.3  decrease  and  5.7  increase  ; 

(3)  The  probable  error  of  a  prediction  based  on  the  first  test 
is  4.5  points  in  terms  of  I  Q. 

A  more  impressive  way  of  expressing  the  agreement 
between  earlier  and  later  tests  is  by  means  of  a  correla- 
tion array,  as  is  done  in  Table  26  for  all  the  tests  taken 
together.  The  correlation  is  .933.  Those  who  ranked 
high  in  the  earlier  test  ordinarily  ranked  high  in  the 
later,  the  average  remained  close  to  average,  the  low 
remained  low. 

Personal  equation  of  the  examiner.  If  an  intelli- 
gence scale  yielded  consistent  results  only  when  used 
by  the  same  examiner  its  value  would  be  extremely 
limited.  On  the  other  hand,  if  results  secured  by  dif- 
ferent examiners  in  testing  the  same  subjects  give  a 
high  correlation,  a  most  important  requirement  of 
validity  has  been  met.  Separate  tabulation  of  those 
cases  in  which  the  earlier  and  later  tests  were  made 
by  different  examiners  yielded  a  correlation  of  .929, 
almost  exactly  the  same  as  that  for  all  the  cases  com- 
pared without  regard  to  examiner.  The  following  are 
typical  illustrations: 

Re-tests  were  made  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Stockton  of 
forty  children  who  had  been  previously  tested  at  vari- 
ous ages  by  various  examiners.  When  the  records  were 
compared  with  the  original  tests,  it  was  found  that  in 


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144    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

twenty-five  of  the  forty  cases  the  I  Q  had  not  changed 
more  than  four  points,  and  in  thirty  not  more  than  six 
points.  The  correlation  with  the  earlier  tests  was  .94. 

Twelve  children  of  Fresno,  California,  who  were  ex- 
amined by  Dr.  J.  H.  Williams  in  1915  were  reexamined 
by  Miss  Blanche  Cummings.  Dr. Williams  was  trained 
at  Stanford  University,  while  Miss  Cummings  had 
learned  the  Stanford  Revision  procedure  by  studying 
the  directions  in  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.  The 
results  of  the  twelve  repeated  tests  are  shown  in 
Table  27. 

The  coefficient  of  correlation  between  the  tests  of 
Dr.  Williams  and  those  of  Miss  Cummings,  made  over 
three  years  apart,  is  .96,  Spearman  method.  Not  only 
do  the  tests  agree  with  each  other;  the  school  progress 
of  the  child  agrees  with  both.  The  average  or  su- 
perior children  make  normal  or  more  than  normal 
progress;  the  inferior  children  less  than  normal  pro- 
gress. Other  groups  re-tested  by  different  examiners 
have  given  similar  results. 

Influence  of  interval  between  tests.  Table  25 
shows  that  it  makes  little  difference  whether  the  com- 
pared tests  are  separated  by  an  interval  of  a  few 
months  or  several  years.  The  central  tendency  of 
change  and  the  proportion  of  changes  included  in  a 
given  range  remain  much  the  same.  The  only  excep- 
tion is  that  tests  separated  by  more  than  five  years 
show  a  greater  tendency  toward  increase  of  I  Q  than 
is  the  case  with  shorter  intervals.  This  is  probably  a 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION 


145 


Examiner 

Age 

Mental  age 

1Q 

Grade 

Williams 
Cummings 

11-1 

14-3 

8-4 
11-0 

75 

77 

4 

6B 

W 
C 

12-0 
15-1 

12-3 
15-6 

102 
103 

6A 
II  High  School 

W 
C 

11-10 
15-0 

11-6 
13-8 

97 
91 

6B 

I  High  School 

W 
C 

11-4 
14-5 

13-5 

16-8 

118 
116 

6B 
I  High  School 

W 
C 

9-2 
12-4 

6-10 
8-8 

75 
70 

2 
3 

W 
C 

8-8 
12-0 

11-0 
15-6 

122 
129 

5A 

8A 

W 
C 

11-1 

14-0 

10-3 
13-5 

92 
96 

5 
II  High  School 

W 
C 

9-0 
12-2 

9-2 

12-8 

102 
104 

4B 

7A 

W 
C 

8-5 
11-C 

9-9 
13-6 

116 
117 

3 
6B 

W 
C 

11-0 
13-9 

7-0 
9-2 

64 
67 

3 
5B 

W 
C 

9-4 
12-6 

6-10 
8-8 

73 
69 

3B 
5A 

W 
C 

9-0 
12-11 

9-1 
12-0 

101 
93 

2A 
5A 

TABLE  27.  SHOWING   AGREEMENT   BETWEEN   THE   EARLIER   AND 
LATER  TESTS  OF  TWELVE  CHILDREN 

Second  test  after  an  interval  of  three  years.    (Correlation  .964) 

spurious  result  due  to  the  fact  that  in  case  of  inter- 
vals of  this  length  the  first  test  was  made  by  a  form 


146    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

of  the  Binet  scale  differing  slightly  from  that  used  in 
the  later  tests. 

It  is  rather  surprising  that  children  profit  little  in  a 
re-test  from  their  experience  in  the  first  test.  One 
would  naturally  expect  a  considerable  improvement 
due  to  their  feeling  more  at  ease  and  to  the  opportu- 
nity to  think  over  their  earlier  mistakes  and  correct 
them.  However,  this  advantage  yields  the  child  (on 
the  average)  only  two  or  three  points  in  I  Q  even 
when  the  test  is  repeated  within  a  few  days.1 

Influence  of  brightness  and  dullness  on  the  con- 
stancy of  the  I  Q.  There  is  a  widespread  popular 
opinion  that  bright  children  usually  fail  to  hold 
their  own,  and  that  the  dull  are  likely  to  improve 
with  increase  of  age.  Psychologists  have  more  often 
expressed  the  view  that  it  is  the  dull  who  fail  to 
hold  their  own,  and  that  the  superiority  of  the  bright 
probably  increases.  Table  25,  which  gives  the  I  Q 
changes  separately  for  the  bright,  average  and  dull 
(above  110,  90-109,  and  below  90),  shows  that  the 
"  I  Q  remains  almost  equally  constant  for  the  three 
groups.  The  central  tendency  of  change  for  the  bright 
is  +  0.7;  for  the  average,  +  3.0;  and  for  the  dull, 
+  1.2.  The  greatest  tendency  to  gain  appears  with 
the  average  group,  and  the  next  greatest  with  the  dull. 
The  differences,  however,  are  practically  negligible. 

1  For  further  data  on  re-tests  of  kindergarten  children  see  the  arti- 
cle by  Irene  Cuneo  and  Lewis  M.  Terman,  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
1918. 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION  147 

When  those  above  125  I  Q  and  those  below  80  I  Q 
were  treated  separately,  the  central  tendency  of 
change  was  found  to  be  —  0.5  for  the  former,  and 
+  1.2  for  the  latter.  The  very  dull  actually  gained  a 
trifle  more  than  the  very  bright.  However,  we  have 
only  thirty-one  repeated  tests  for  the  low  group  to 
compare  with  eighty  for  the  high  group,  and  the  low 
group  contains  very  few  cases  below  60  I  Q.  It  is 
possible  that  feeble-minded  children  testing  below  60 
are  less  likely  to  hold  their  own  than  those  of  milder 
degree  of  defect.  As  far  as  the  school  is  concerned 
this  possibly  may  be  ignored,  since  there  are  relatively 
few  in  public  school  classes  who  test  this  low. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  I  Q  as  determined  by  the 
Stanford-Binet  (or  any  other  intelligence  scale  yet  de- 
vised) cannot  indefinitely  maintain  its  constancy  in 
the  case  of  children  who  are  exceptionally  superior. 
The  child  of  fourteen  years  who  tests  at  139  has  passed 
all  the  tests  in  the  scale.  Thereafter  his  I  Q  drops 
gradually  to  122,  which  is  the  maximum  possible  for  a 
subject  of  sixteen  years  who  passes  all  the  Stanford- 
Binet  tests.  Similarly,  the  child  who  tests  at  161  has 
reached  his  maximum  I  Q  at  the  chronological  age  of 
twelve  years.  This  does  not  mean  that  his  develop- 
ment ceases  at  this  time,  but  merely  that  the  Stanford- 
Binet  does  not  measure  it.  Children  who  test  at  130 
are  measured  fairly  accurately  up  to  the  age  of  .fifteen 
years,  or  nearly  as  far  as  chronological  age  is  counted. 
Since  only  about  one  child  in  a  hundred  rates  as  high 


148    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

as  130,  the  scale  is  seen  to  offer  a  reasonably  satisfac- 
tory measure  for  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  unselected 
children,  and  also  for  the  remaining  one  per  cent 
except  during  the  later  years  of  mental  growth. 

Limits  of  accuracy  in  prediction  of  mental  develop- 
ment. From  the  frequency  of  the  various  amounts  of 
change  in  I  Q,  as  shown  in  Table  25,  we  can  compute 
the  average  error  which  will  be  made  in  predicting  the 
mental  age  or  the  I  Q  which  a  child  will  have  at  any 
later  age.  ,  Speaking  roughly,  fifty  per  cent  of  the  I 
Q's  found  at  a  later  test  may  be  expected  to  fall  within 
the  range  between  six  points  up  and  four  points  down. 
Half  of  this  distance,  or  five  points,  is  the  probable 
error  of  an  I Q  for  purposes  of  prediction.1  Deviations 
of  one,  two,  three,  four,  or  five  times  the  probable  er- 
ror may  be  expected  to  occur  with  the  frequency  given 
in  the  second  column  below.2  The  frequency  actually 
found  is  shown  in  the  third  column. 

Deviations  as  great  as  Theoretical        Actual 

or  greater  than  frequency       frequency 

(per  cent)  (per  cent) 

One  time       P.  E.  (  5  points) 50  50 

Two  times    P.  E   (10  points) 27.76  16.6 

Three  times  P.  E.  (15  points) 4.3  6.2 

Four  times    P.  E.  (20  points) .7  1 .85 

Since  the  central  tendency  of  change  is  toward  an 

1  Ac  Dually  the  P.  E.  is  somewhat  less  than  this,  namely  4.5. 

2  See  any  textbook  on  statistical  method;  e.g.,  Rugg,  H.  O.,  Sta- 
tistical Methods  Applied  to  Education  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1917); 
pp.  391. 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION  149 

increase  of  a  little  more  than  1  point,  and  since  the 
changes  above  and  below  this  are  distributed  fairly 
symmetrically,  we  may  say,  roughly  speaking,  that 
the  chances  that  an  I  Q  will  either  increase  as  much  as 
six  points  or  decrease  as  much  as  four  points  are  one 
in  two;  that  it  will  either  increase  as  much  as  twelve 
points  or  decrease  as  much  as  eight  points,  one  in  five ; 
that  it  will  either  increase  as  much  as  eighteen  points 
or  decrease  as  much  as  twelve  points,  one  in  twenty; 
that  it  will  either  increase  as  much  as  twenty-four 
points  or  decrease  as  much  as  sixteen  points,  one  in  a 
hundred  and  forty. 

The  above  statements  regarding  the  probability  of 
different  degrees  of  change  occurring  include  devia- 
tions both  above  and  below  the  central  tendency  of 
change.  The  chance  for  a  deviation  to  occur  in  one  di- 
rection is  only  half  as  great.  For  illustration,  the  chance 
that  a  child  who  tests  at  85  will  later  test  as  high  as  91 
is  one  in  four ;  that  he  will  later  test  as  high  as  97,  one 
in  ten;  that  he  will  later  test  as  high  as  103,  one  in 
forty,  etc.  Similarly,  the  chance  that  he  will  drop  to  81 
or  below  is  one  in  four;  that  he  will  drop  to  77  or  be- 
low, one  in  ten ;  that  he  will  drop  to  73  or  below,  one  in 
forty,  etc.1 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  I  Q  is  sufficiently 
constant  to  make  it  a  practical  and  serviceable  basis 

1  The  chances  of  given  deviations  occurring  vary  so  slightly  for 
children  of  different  ages  at  the  time  of  the  first  test,  also  so  slightly 
for  intervals  of  different  length  between  tests,  that  for  practical  pur- 
poses these  factors  may  be  left  out  of  account. 


150    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

for  mental  classification.  At  the  same  time  it  is  not 
infallible.  A  single  test  does  not  give  us  certainty,  but 
merely  a  high  degree  of  probability.  While  the  I  Q 
it  yields  is  extremely  valuable  in  the  tentative  classifi- 
cation of  children,  it  needs  to  be  checked  up  by  sup- 
plementary data  and  by  re-tests.  In  certain  types 
of  pathological  subjects  the  I  Q  may  undergo  large 
fluctuations.  Epileptics,  for  example,  frequently  de- 
teriorate from  something  like  normality  to  middle- 
grade  deficiency  in  the  course  of  a  few  years. 

Mechanical  errors  as  a  source  of  discrepancy.  So 
close  is  the  agreement  in  most  cases  between  earlier 
and  later  tests  that  when  a  discrepancy  of  more  than 
twelve  or  fifteen  points  is  found  it  warrants  a  strong 
suspicion  that  an  incorrect  age  has  been  given  in  one 
of  the  tests,  or  that  arithmetical  error  has  been  made 
in  adding  credits  to  find  mental  age  or  in  dividing 
mental  age  by  chronological  age  to  find  the  I  Q. 
Mistakes  of  this  kind  are  a  more  dangerous  source  of 
error  than  the  personal  equation  of  the  examiner. 
Arithmetical  errors  can  be  greatly  reduced  by  making 
all  computations  twice,  a  precaution  which  we  con- 
sider absolutely  necessary.  The  avoidance  of  errors 
due  to  incorrect  age  is  by  no  means  easy.  Chil- 
dren in  the  lower  grades  occasionally  do  not  know 
their  age.  Sometimes  the  age  recorded  in  the  school 
register  is  incorrect  because  of  falsification  by  parent. 
The  seriousness  of  this  source  of  error  is  shown  by  the 
following  illustration : 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION  151 

K.  N.  tested  at  the  mental  age  of  5-2.  The  age  given  was 
C-6,  and  the  I  Q  was  therefore  computed  as  79.  This  indi- 
cated a  degree  of  dullness  almost  amounting  to  borderlinity. 
However,  when  the  child  was  re-tested  two  years  later  the 
chronological  age  was  given  as  only  7-6,  instead  of  8-6. 
Investigation  disclosed  the  fact  that  7-6  was  correct  and 
that  the  parents  had  falsified  the  age  to  secure  earlier  en- 
trance. The  mental  age  earned  at  the  second  test  was  7-2 
and  the  I  Q  95.  Correction  of  the  age  at  first  test  raised  the 
former  I  Q  of  79  to  94,  practically  the  same  as  that  earned 
in  the  second  test. 

Do  adenoids  affect  the  I  Q  ?  It  is  very  generally 
believed  that  adenoids  seriously  retard  mental  devel- 
opment, and  that  their  removal  is  nearly  always  fol- 
lowed by  a  marked  intellectual  awakening.  If  such 
were  the  case  the  effect  of  removal  should  be  to  in- 
crease considerably  the  I  Q.  Among  our  re-tested 
children  we  have  records  of  twenty -seven  who  under- 
went an  operation  for  removal  of  adenoids  or  tonsils 
in  the  interval  between  tests.  Comparison  of  the  I  Q's 
of  earlier  and  later  tests  showed  a  central  tendency 
toward  a  gain  of  two  points  and  a  fraction.  There 
were  ten  losses  and  seventeen  gains,  but  no  gain  larger 
than  fourteen  points,  and  only  two  larger  than  ten 
points.  Although  these  results  are  too  scanty  to  war- 
rant a  conclusion,  they  suggest  that  adenoids  and 
diseased  tonsils  may  give  a  child  an  exaggerated  ap- 
pearance of  dullness.  They  are  a  chronic  source  of 
toxins  which  seriously  impair  physical  vitality,  and 
their  removal  probably  adds  to  the  child's  vivacity 


152    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

and  to  his  interest  in  school  work.  This  effect  would 
easily  be  mistaken  for  real  intellectual  improvement. 
There  are  enough  reasons  why  adenoids  and  diseased 
tonsils  should  be  removed,  apart  from  any  effect  on 
the  I  Q. 

Investigations  on  a  larger  scale  should  be  made  to 
determine  the  effects  on  intelligence  not  only  of  ade- 
noids, but  also  of  such  factors  as  malnutrition,  chorea, 
loss  of  sleep,  fatigue,  hookworm,1  malaria,  etc. 


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FIG.  20.  MENTAL-GROWTH  CURVES  AS  THEY  WOULD  BE  IF  I  Q  WERE 
CONSTANT 

1.  Mental-growth  curve  as  it  would  be  for  a  child  who  continued  to  test  at  100  I  Q 

2.  Mental-growth  curve  as  it  would  be  for  a  child  who  continued  to  test  at  133  I  Q 
8.  Mental-growth  curve  as  it  would  be  for  a  child  who  continued  to  test  at  67  I  Q 

1  An  investigation  made  by  Strong  of  the  effects  of  hookworm 
disease  on  mental  and  physical  growth  did  not  afford  very  positive 
results,  as  re-tests  were  not  given. 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION 


153 


Curves  of  mental  growth.  If  we  had  a  perfect  scale 
for  determining  the  mental  age  level,  and  if  the  I Q  re- 
mained absolutely  constant,  the  "  curves  "  of  mental 
growth  would  be  a  straight  line  from  birth  to  the  point 
of  mental  maturity.  The  mental-growth  curves  for 
typically  dull,  average,  or  bright  children  would  then 
be  as  represented  in  Figure  20.  It  will  be  observed 
that  each  of  the  hypothetical  growth  curves  in  Fig- 
ure 20  maintains  a  certain  relative  distance  from  the 
heavy  line  representing  the  average-normal  (I  Q  100). 


AGE 


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FIG.  21.  ACTUAL  MENTAL-GROWTH  CURVES  OF  CHILDREN  OF 
VARIOUS  DEGREES  OF  BRIGHTNESS 

1.  Mental-growth  curve  of  superior  child  No.  17,  Chapter  XI 
1.  Mental-growth  curve  of  superior  child  No.  11,  Chapter  XI 

4.  Granddaughter  of  an  inventor  and  related  to  John  Wesley 

5.  Son  of  a  man  of  international  fame 

13.  Member  of  a  feeble-minded  family  of  "X"  County,  California,  which  has  long 
burdened  the  community  with  delinquents  and  paupers 


154    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


The  child's  brightness  or  dullness  is  not  at  all  indi- 
cated by  his  mental  age,  but  only  by  the  ratio  of  mental 
age  to  chronological  age.  The  tendency  is  to  remain 
a  certain  per  cent  above  or  below  the  normal. 

We  do  not  have  an  infallible  measuring  scale,  and 
even  if  we  had  we  should  hardly  expect  the  I  Q  (i.e., 
the  ratio  of  mental  age  to  chronological  age)  to  main- 
tain perfect  constancy.  Accordingly,  mental-growth 
curves  can  only  be  expected  to  agree  roughly  with 
those  shown  in  Figure  20.  Figure  21  shows  actual 
mental-growth  curves  found  by  repeated  tests  of  chil- 
dren of  various  degrees  of  brightness. 

AGE 


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10 


FIG.  22.  MENTAL-GROWTH  CURVES  OF  BRIGHT  AND  DULL  CHILDREN 

2.  Superior  child  No.  33,  Chapter  XI 

4.  Described  in  Tlic  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  page  97 

6.  Enrolled  in  a  special  class.     In  the  third  grade  at  12^  years 

7.  Enrolled  in  a  special  class.  lu  the  fifth  grade  at  age  of  1(5,  but  unable  to  do  the  work 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION 


155 


Figure  22  contrasts  two  groups  of  children.  Those 
below  the  normal  line  are  all  either  feeble-minded  or 
border-line  cases,  most  of  whom  were  attending  spe- 
cial classes  and  none  of  whom  was  ever  able  to  pro- 
gress above  the  seventh  grade.  The  lowest  is  an  imbe- 
cile, barely  able  at  the  age  of  twelve  years  to  read  in 
the  first  reader.  The  bright  group  is  as  much  above 
average  intelligence  as  the  dull  group  is  below,  but 
they  attract  far  less  notice  in  school. 

Figure  23  illustrates  how  children  in  the  same  fam- 
ily ordinarily  test  close  together.  The  mental-growth 
curves  above  the  normal  line  represent  two  brothers 


AGE 


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Fia.  23.  MENTAL-GROWTH  CURVES  IN  Two  CONTRASTING  FAMILIES 

1,  2,  and  3.  Two  brothers  and  one  sister  of  the  W.  family 
4,  5,  6,  and  7.  Three  brothers  and  one  sister  of  the  P.  family 
The  cross  represents  a  single  test 
The  children  of  the  two  families  attend  the  same  school 


156    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


and  one  sister  of  the  W.  family.  The  dots  below  the 
line  represent  the  single  tests  of  three  brothers  and  one 
sister  in  the  P.  family.  The  children  of  both  families 
attend  the  same  school.  Needless  to  say,  the  school 
success  of  the  two  groups  is  very  different.  The  W. 
children  are  all  accelerated,  and  are  all  rated  "  very- 
superior  "  in  quality  of  work;  the  P.  children  are  all 
from  one  to  three  grades  retarded,  and  are  doing  work 
rated  as  "  inferior  "  or  "  very  inferior." 

Occasionally  marked  contrasts  in  mental  ability  are 
found  in  the  same  family,  although  this  is  the  excep- 
tion to  the  rule.  Three  such  contrasts  are  shown  in 
Figure  84.  The  unbroken  lines,  1  and  2,  represent  a 

AGE 


FIG.  24.  MENTAL-GROWTH  CONTRASTS  IN  THE  SAME  FAMILY 

E1  and  E2.  Brother  and  sister  in  a  Portuguese  family.  E1  is  leading  his  class  in  high 
school.  E2  failed  to  complete  the  eighth  grade 

M1  and  M2.  Brothers.  M2  is  a  year  and  a  half  older  than  M,1  but  a  grade  behind 
him  in  school.  Parents  unable  to  understand  his  poor  school  work. 

Sl  and  S2.  Brothers. 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION 


157 


brother  and  sister,  the  broken  lines,  3  and  4,  two 
brothers  in  another  family.  The  two  crosses  indicate 
single  tests  of  two  brothers  in  a  third  family.  In  each 
case  the  contrast  in  school  success  was  as  marked  as 
the  contrast  in  the  growth  curves. 

Figure  25  shows  four  exceptionally  irregular  curves 
of  mental  development.  No.  1  and  No.  4  represent 
conditions  of  mental  disease  (dementia  precox  and  epi- 
lepsy) .  Normal  children  do  not  often  show  as  marked 
irregularity  as  that  found  in  No.  2  and  No.  3. 

The  I  Q  as  a  basis  for  predicting  school  progress. 
The  relative  permanency  of  the  I  Q  enables  us  to  pre- 

AGE 


FIG.  25.  FOUR  EXCEPTIONALLY  IRREGULAR  GROWTH  CURVES 

1.  A  boy  who  at  the  age  of  ten  showed  symptoms  of  dementia  pracox 

2.  A  normal  boy  —  cause  of  the  irregularity  not  known 

8.  An  adolescent  boy  of  marked  instability  and  neurotic  symptoms 
4.  An  epileptic  girl,  showing  typicel  epileptic  deterioration 


158    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

diet  with  some  degree  of  approximation  the  mental 
level  a  child  will  attain  by  a  given  age.  We  have  also 
seen  that  it  is  the  mental  level,  more  than  anything 
else,  which  determines  a  child's  proper  location  in  the 
school  grades.  If  schools  were  careful  to  grade  children 
according  to  mental  age  it  would  be  possible,  knowing 
a  child's  I  Q,  to  predict  in  what  grade  the  child  would 
be  found  at  any  given  time  in  the  future. 

We  have  seen,  however,  that  schools  do  not  grade 
children  as  nearly  by  mental  age  as  they  should.  While 
children  of  low  I  Q  do  become  retarded,  they  are  nev- 
ertheless usually  found  in  a  grade  considerably  above 
that  corresponding  to  mental  age.  On  the  other  hand, 
children  of  very  superior  I  Q,  while  they  are  likely  to 
be  promoted  somewhat  beyond  average  children  of 
their  age,  are  usually  found  in  a  grade  considerably 
below  that  corresponding  to  mental  age. 

Notwithstanding  this  constant  tendency  of  teachers 
to  promote  children  by  age  rather  than  by  ability,  the 
I  Q  nevertheless  offers  a  fairly  serviceable  basis  for 
predicting  a  child's  later  schoolprogress.  Tables  28  to 
35  show  the  grade  which  children  of  various  degrees  of 
brightness  had  attained  at  various  ages.  The  heavy 
squares  running  diagonally  across  each  figure  show 
the  grades  in  which  a  child  of  100  I  Q  normally  be- 
longs at  the  various  ages.  In  all  these  tables,  age 
seven  includes  children  between  six  and  one  half  and 
seven  and  one  half  years  old,  age  eight  those  between 
seven  and  one  half  and  eight  and  one  half,  etc. 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION 


159 


n 


SCHOOL  GRADE 
III          IV          V          VI 


VII       VIII      Total 


7 
8 
9 
«10 

2" 

di2 

313 

o 
|14 

§15 
16 
17 

18 
Total 

7 

- 

7 

5 

6 

9 

4 

13 

9 

5 

14 

4 

5 

5 

14 

3 

4 

3 

2 

12 

4 

5 

9 

5 

2 

25 

3 

6 

5 

10 

3 

27 

1 

2 

7 

7 

1 

18 

1 

2 

4 

3 

1 

11 

1 

1 

2 

2 

6 

1 

1 

2 

37 

25 

20 

19 

25 

18 

7 

3 

154 

TABLE  28.  GRADE  PROGRESS  AT  50-69  I  Q 


SCHOOL  GRADE 
III         IV          V         VI 


VII        VIII     Total 


6 

6 

5 

3 

8 

8 

5 

1 

14 

2 

5 

2 

9 

1 

3 

2 

1 

7 

1 

4 

3 

1 

1 

10 

2 

6 

1 

3 

12 

2 

3 

4 

2 

1 

12 

1 

2 

3 

2 

2 

10 

1 

3 

3 

2 

9 

1 

1 

2 

22 

17 

11 

13 

8 

14 

8 

6 

99 

TABLE  29.  GRADE  PROGRESS  AT  70-74  I  Q 


160    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


in 


SCHOOL  GRADE 
IV          V          VI 


VII       VIII     Total 


7 
8 

9 

• 

310 
s11 

512 

|13 

§14 

BIS 

16 
17 

6 

6 

10 

3 

13 

7 

5 

12 

1 

6 

3 

10 

1 

3 

7 

4 

15 

1 

5 

6 

5 

17 

2 

7 

10 

6 

1 

26 

1 

3 

4 

2 

1 

11 

2 

2 

6 

2 

12 

1 

1 

6 

8 

2 

2 

4 

Total 

25 

18 

17 

18 

20 

13 

12 

11 

134 

TABLE  30.  GRADE  PROGRESS  AT  75-79  I  Q 


II 


SCHOOL  GRADE 
III         IV         V         VI 


VII        VIII    Total 


7 

16 

16 

8 

*    9 
3  10 

3ll 

o 

§12 
013 

I14 

U15 
16 
17 

Total 

13 

6 

19 

7 

15 

2 

24 

4 

9 

1 

14 

5 

9 

6 

20 

1 

4 

14 

1 

20 

3 

16 

9 

1 

29 

7 

6 

5 

5 

22 

2 

3 

8 

13 

1 

5 

6 

1 

1 

36 

25 

17 

17 

43 

17 

10 

19 

184 

TABLE  31.  GRADE  PROGRESS  AT  80-84  I  Q. 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION 


161 


SCHOOL  GRADE 
III         IV         V         VI 


VII       VIII      Total 


47 

7 

54 

13 

48 

11 

72 

1 

15 

46 

8 

70 

9 

35 

15 

59 

1 

11 

40 

9 

1 

62 

2 

22 

27 

3 

1 

55 

3 

21 

30 

7 

61 

4 

7 

26 

37 

1 

2 

11 

14 

2 

2 

61 

70 

67 

66 

80 

62 

43 

47 

486 

TABLE  32.  GRADE  PROGRESS  AT  95-104  I  Q 


SCHOOL  GRADE 
III         IV          V          VI 


VII       VIII     Total 


11 

11 

1 

23 

6 

11 

2 

19 

4 

10 

3 

17 

1 

8 

11 

5 

25 

9 

16 

3 

28 

3 

10 

7 

20 

1 

3 

5 

9 

5 

5 

11 

17 

17 

20 

23 

25 

16 

17 

146 

TABLE  33.  GRADE  PROGRESS  AT  120-129  I  Q 

Inspection  of  the  above  tables  will  reveal  the  follow- 
ing facts : 
-I.  The  lower  the  I  Q,  the  greater  the  degree  of  re- 


1C2     INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

SCHOOL  GRADE 


in 


IV 


VI         VII      VIII      Total 


7 

r. 

s10 

s11 

|12 

S13 

614 
15 
Total 

2 

5 

5 

12 

1 

6 

3 

10 

1 

5 

4 

10 

1 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

6 

2 

14 

2 

6 

3 

11 

1 

3 

4 

2 

2 

2 

6 

12 

10 

8 

8 

14 

10 

70 

TABLE  34.  GRADE  PROGRESS  AT  130-139  I  Q 

VII      VllI     Total 


II 


III 


SCHOOL  GRADE 
IV          V         VI 


7 

H    8 
3    9 

3  10 

§11 
§12 

§13 
U14 
15 

Total 

1 

2 

1 

4 

1 

2 

2 

8 

2 

16 

1 

3 

5 

2 

3 

14 

11 

4 

3 

1 

19 

2 

3 

6 

2 

12 

3 

2 

5 

1 

2 

3 

1 

3 

4 

5 

26 

11 

15 

7 

72 

TABLE  35.  GRADE  PROCESS  AT  140-170  I  Q 

tardation.  As  we  go  from  the  50-69  I  Q  group  to  the 
95-104  group,  the  grade  location  gradually  improves 
until  it  approximates  the  normal. 

2.  The  I  Q  groups  above  100  show  a  greater  degree 
of  acceleration  the  brighter  the  group.   It  will  be  noted, 


THE  I  Q  AND  PREDICTION  1G3 

however,  that  the  acceleration  of  the  bright  group  is 
not  quite  as  great  as  the  retardation  of  the  dull.  For 
example,  the  120-129  children  are  not  as  far  above 
the  heavy  squares  as  the  70-74  and  75-79  children  are 
below.  The  same  holds  for  the  130-139  group  as 
compared  with  those  of  60-69  I  Q. 

3.  If  the  mental  age  of  a  given  child  in  one  of  the 
retarded  groups  is  computed,  it  will  usually  be  found 
that  the  child  is  less  retarded  than  he  ought  to  be. 
When  the  mental  age  of  a  child  in  one  of  the  bright 
groups  is  computed,  it  will  be  found  that  the  child  is 
less  accelerated  than  he  ought  to  be. 

4.  The  typical  child  of  60  or  65  I  Q  tends  to  remain 
in  the  first  grade  until  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven  years, 
and  not  to  reach  the  fifth  grade  until  the  age  of  four- 
teen or  fifteen  years.  By  this  time  he  has  a  mental  level 
of  only  about  nine  years  and  is  not  able  to  do  the 
school  work  satisfactorily  above  the  third  or  fourth 
grade. 

5.  The  typical  child  of  75-79  I  Q  reaches  the  fifth 
grade  by  the  age  of  thirteen  years,  and  if  he  remains  in 
school  is  likely  to  be  found  in  the  eighth  grade  by  the 
age  of  sixteen  or  seventeen.    Nearly  always,  however, 
his  grade  location  is  higher  than  the  mental  age  would 
warrant. 

6.  Children  of  80-84  I  Q  usually  remain  two  years 
in  the  first  grade,  and  complete  the  eighth  grade,  if  they 
complete  it  at  all,  one  or  two  years  behind  schedule 
time. 


164    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

7.  On  the  other  hand,  children  of  120-129  I  Q  are 
usually  found  either  one  or  two  grades  accelerated. 
Nearly  all  of  this  gain,  however,  is  made  in  the  first 
year  or  two  of  school  life.     After  the  first  year,  they 
are  held  to  the  one-grade-one-year  pace  of  average 
children.      Even  so,  the  central  tendency  is  for  them 
to  complete  the  eighth  grade  at  the  age  of  thirteen. 

8.  The  situation  is  slightly  but  not  proportionately 
better  for  the  I Q  group  of  130-139.    Children  of  140  to 
170  I  Q,  however,  are  likely  to  become  three  or  four 
years  accelerated  and  to  reach  the  eighth  grade  by  the 
age  of  eleven  or  twelve  years.     Wherever  children  of 
the  higher  I  Q  groups  are  located,  their  work  always 
presents  a  striking  contrast  with  that  of  children  of 
the  60,  70,  or  80  I  Q  class  who  are  several  years  their 
seniors. 


CHAPTER  X 

SOME  FACTS  ABOUT  FIFTY-NINE  SUPERIOR 
CHILDREN » 

Educational  neglect  of  superior  children.  The  at- 
tention of  teachers  is  constantly  being  called  to  the 
large  number  of  defectives  among  school  children,  and 
to  the  educational  and  social  problems  to  which  they 
give  rise.  For  the  intellectually  superior,  however, 
the  ones  upon  whose  preservation  and  right  education 
the  future  of  civilization  most  depends,  no  special  pro- 
vision is  made.  In  the  average  school  system  their 
very  existence,  even,  is  ignored.  Yet,  as  we  have 
seen,  they  are  just  as  numerous  as  the  dull  and 
mentally  defective.  The  latter  attract  attention  by 
their  inability  to  do  the  work  and  by  their  malad- 
justment to  school  discipline.  Children  of  superior 
ability  are  often  submerged  with  the  masses  simply 
because  they  are  not  recognized. 

Another  thing  that  has  blocked  the  educational 
path  of  the  gifted  child  is  the  widespread  belief  that 
intellectual  precocity  is  pathological,  that  exception- 
ally bright  children  are  usually  unhealthy  and  likely 
to  become  physical  or  mental  wrecks  if  their  intellec- 
tual interests  are  at  all  stimulated.  Recently,  how- 
ever, the  truth  of  the  traditional  belief  has  come  more 
1  Written  with  the  assistance  of  Margaret  Hopwood  Hubbard. 


166    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

and  more  under  suspicion.  Such  studies  as  have  been 
made  of  gifted  children  have  not  disclosed  the  patho- 
logical symptoms  popularly  supposed  to  accompany 
exceptional  intellectual  ability.  On  the  contrary, 
wherever  the  experiment  has  been  tried  of  provid- 
ing such  children  larger  and  richer  opportunities  the 
results  have  been  surprisingly  gratifying.  When  fa- 
vored with  extra  promotions  they  make  good  in  the 
higher  grade  without  injury  to  health;  when  given 
the  advantage  of  a  broader  and  richer  course  of  study 
their  minds  expand  and  take  the  wide  swath  as  easily 
as  they  had  taken  the  narrow  one. 

Instances  of  this  kind  coming  to  our  attention 
from  time  to  time  led  us  some  years  ago  to  undertake 
the  more  or  less  systematic  study  of  exceptionally  su- 
perior children.  With  the  help  of  Margaret  Hop  wood 
Hubbard  and  other  Stanford  University  students,  we 
have  secured  Binet  tests  of  some  eighty  California 
children  having  an  I  Q  above  135.  All  but  a  few 
of  these  tested  140  or  above.  Fifty-nine  of  the  group 
were  subjected  to  a  rather  careful  study,  which  will  be 
summarized  briefly  in  this  chapter. 

Selection  of  subjects.  The  study  was  limited 
chiefly  to  children  who  tested  140  or  above  in  order  to 
secure  subjects  whose  intelligence  would  be  as  far  above 
average  as  that  of  typical  feeble-minded  children  is 
below  average.  The  fifty-nine  subjects  composed 
two  groups,  which  will  be  designated  as  the  Alameda 
Group  and  the  Miscellaneous  Group. 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       167 

The  Alameda  Group  included  twenty -four  subjects 
selected  by  systematic  search  throughout  the  public 
schools  of  Alameda,  California.  The  method  of  se- 
lection was  as  follows:  (1)  The  age-grade  location  was 
found  for  all  the  children  in  the  grades  below  the  high 
school;  (2)  the  pupils  were  rated  by  their  teachers  for 
intelligence  on  a  scale  of  five:  very  superior,  superior, 
average,  inferior,  and  very  inferior;  (3)  all  the  children, 
who  were  under-age  two  or  more  years  by  the  Ayres 
standard,  and  who  were  rated  by  their  teachers  as 
above  average  in  intelligence,  were  provisionally  se- 
lected for  study;  (4)  the  principals  and  teachers  were 
asked  to  recommend  others  of  exceptionally  superior 
intelligence  who  could  not  qualify  on  the  above  rules.1 

In  this  way  seventy  children  of  the  five  thousand 
enrolled  in  the  schools  of  Alameda  were  provisionally 
selected  and  given  a  test  with  the  Stanford-Binet 

1  The  fifty-seven  Alameda  pupils  who  were  tested  but  fell  below 
the  standard  of  brightness  set  for  the  study,  included  twenty-four 
boys  and  thirty-three  girls,  with  I  Q's  as  follows: 

Boys  Girls 

130-135 9  8 

125-129 4  8 

120-124 2  4 

115-119 1  6 

110-114 3  4 

105-109 1  3 

100-104 2  0 

95-99 2  0 

Total 24  33 

The  two  who  tested  below  100  were  each  one  year  over-age  for 
their  grade.  The  teacher's  judgment  was  in  error  because  age  had 
not  been  taken  into  account. 


168    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

scale.  Of  these,  twenty -two  were  found  to  have  an  in- 
telligence quotient  of  one  hundred  and  thirty -seven  or 
above.  In  addition,  one  subject  of  135  I Q  and  one  of 
136  I  Q  were  included  for  special  reasons,  making  a 
total  of  twenty-four  in  the  Alameda  Group.  * 

The  Miscellaneous  Group  consisted  of  twenty -five 
children  who  had  been  located  by  the  writer  and  by 
various  Stanford  students  in  the  half-dozen  years 
preceding  the  present  study. 

Supplementary  data.  The  intelligence  tests  were 
used  primarily  to  identify  the  superior  children,  and 
to  measure  their  degree  of  superiority.  Much  more 
time  was  given  to  interviews  with  parents  and  teach- 
ers in  the  work  of  gathering  items  of  information 
listed  in  an  eight-page  "  information  blank  "  for  par- 
ents, and  a  somewhat  shorter  one  for  teachers.  All 
of  the  homes  were  visited  by  Mrs.  Hubbard  except  a 
few  of  the  more  distant  ones.  The  interviews  lasted 
usually  one  to  three  hours.  Similar  interviews  were 
held  with  the  child's  teacher. 

For  the  Alameda  Group,  duplicate  office  records 
were  secured  from  the  school  principals,  showing  each 
child's  school  marks  from  the  time  of  entering  school. 
A  number  of  educational  measurements  were  also 
available  for  comparative  purposes  in  the  case  of  this 
group,  including  tests  in  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, division,  spelling,  and  arithmetical  reasoning. 

The  information  blank  for  teachers  called  for  (1) 
data  on  school  progress;  (2)  ratings  of  the  quality  of 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       169 

the  child's  school  work  in  each  subject  (usual  scale  of 
five) ;  (3)  indications  of  exceptional  ability,  and  a  state- 
ment as  to  whether  the  ability  appeared  to  be  special 
or  general;  (4)  ratings  on  twenty  mental,  moral,  and 
physical  traits  (scale  of  five  used  for  each  trait);  (5) 
facts  regarding  play,  reading,  physical  defects,  nerv- 
ousness, eccentricities,  moral  peculiarities,  etc. 

The  information  blank  for  parents  called  for  data  on 
(1)  nationality,  education,  and  occupation  of  parents; 
names  and  ages  of  all  the  children,  with  rating  of  each 
for  intelligence;  (2)  ratings  of  the  superior  child  on  the 
same  twenty  traits  which  were  rated  by  the  teacher; 
(3)  facts  regarding  walking,  talking,  dentition,  nour- 
ishment in  infancy,  early  growth,  illness,  etc. ;  (4)  spe- 
cial data  on  adenoids,  tonsils,  eye  and  ear  defects, 
headaches,  digestive  trouble,  nervousness,  timidity, 
amount  and  quality  of  sleep;  (5)  regularity  of  school 
attendance,  attitude  toward  school,  home  study  and 
reading,  use  of  time  after  school,  evenings  and  vaca- 
tions, private  instruction,  etc.;  (6)  indications  of  supe- 
rior ability,  amount  and  kind  of  formal  instruction  hi 
the  home,  vocational  ambitions;  (7)  occupation,  edu- 
cation, and  ability  of  parents  and  grandparents,  and 
data  regarding  uncles,  aunts,  cousins,  and  distin- 
guished or  defective  relatives. 

The  traits  which  were  rated  both  by  parents  and 
teachers  were:  studiousness,  power  to  give  sustained 
attention,  persistence,  social  adaptability,  leadership, 
initiative,  evenness  of  temper,  emotional  self-control, 


170    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

physical  self-control,  will  power,  cheerfulness,  cour- 
age, sense  of  humor,  obedience,  conscientiousness,  de- 
pendability, intellectual  modesty  (lack  of  vanity), 
unselfishness,  general  health,  and  general  intelligence. 
Intelligence  quotients.  The  I  Q's  of  the  fifty-nine 
subjects  were  distributed  as  follows : 

I Q  Boya  Girls 

180-184 1  0 

175-179 0  0 

170-174 2  0 

165-169 2  0 

160-164 1  1 

155-159 2  1 

150-154 8  0 

145-149 5  6 

140-144 11  5 

135-139 9  5 

Total 41  18 

The  average  I  Q  was  149.7  and  the  median  145. 
Only  eighteen  were  as  high  as  150. l 

1  Since  this  study  was  completed,  twenty-one  other  children  have 
been  located  in  California  who  test  above  140  I  Q,  bringing  the  total 
number  to  eighty.  As  many  of  these  as  possible  will  be  followed  up 
from  year  to  year  until  adult  life.  The  twenty-one  new  cases  not  in- 
cluded in  the  present  study  are  as  follows: 

Sex        Age      Grade         I  Q  Sex      Age        Grade         I  Q 

G...     7-10      5          174  G...    10-2        5          148 

G...    10-1        6          167  G...     7-6        1          148 

B ...     9-0        6          160  G ...     4-4      Kgn       145 

B .  .  .     8-8        5          157  B . . .    10-4        5          144 

B...   11-4        8          156  B...    13-8        8          143 

G...     3-6        0          154  G...     6-9        1          142 

G...     6-8        0          151  G...    10-7        5          141 

G ...     9-5        5          151  B ...     8-3        4          141 

B ...     4-0        0          150  B ...     8-6  141 

B...    10-5        6          146  B.  ..     9-0  141 

B..       6-3        1          144 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       171 

The  lowest  of  our  subjects  is  probably  equaled  or  ex- 
ceeded in  brightness  by  not  more  than  1  child  in  100; 
the  highest  by  not  more  than  1  in  10,000  or  20,000. 
The  highest  I  Q  found  in  Alameda's  enrollment  of 
5000  was  158.  An  I  Q  of  140  probably  occurs  with  an 
average  frequency  of  about  1  hi  200,  or  one  half  of  one 
per  cent.  It  was  found  nineteen  times  in  Alameda's 
enrollment  of  5000,  giving  a  ratio  of  a  little  less  than 
one  half  of  one  per  cent. 

The  average  I  Q  for  the  children  of  the  different 
ages  was  as  follows: 

Age  Number  of    Average 

Subjects          I Q 

3 1  162 

4 2  143 

5 2  144.5 

6 2  144 

7 4  158 

8 4  147  ^ 

9 10  147.4 

10 10  154.5 

11 11  143.4 

12 6  141.8 

13 4  140   ' 

14 3  139.3 

There  were  few  subjects  above  the  age  of  twelve 
years,  because  the  search  was  confined  almost  entirely 
to  the  grades  below  the  high  school.  The  diminishing 
number  below  eight  is  explained  by  the  difficulty 
teachers  find  in  recognizing  the  superior  child  until  he 
has  attended  school  two  or  three  years. 

Of  the  fifty-nine,  only  eighteen  were  girls.     Of  the 


172    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

eighteen  testing  150  or  above,  only  two  were  girls.  The 
six  highest  were  boys.  During  the  progress  of  the  work 
effort  was  made  to  ignore  the  possibility  of  sex  differ- 
ences. Of  the  seventy  Alameda  children  selected  for 
testing,  more  than  half  were  girls. 1  Of  the  six  girls  test- 
ing above  145  I  Q,  all  but  one  (a  child  of  three  years) 
have  special  ability  in  literary  or  artistic  lines;  the 
fields  in  which  women  have  met  the  most  pronounced 
success. 

Age-grade  location.  Counting  a  child  at-grade  who 
is  in  the  first  grade  between  the  ages  of  6-6  and  7-5,  in 
the  second  grade  between  the  ages  of  7-6  and  8-5,  etc., 
we  have  the  following  distribution: 

On  basis  of  Number    Per  cent 

real  age 


Retarded  

0 

0 

At  grade                              •  • 

4 

8  5 

Advance^  one  year  

14 

29.8 

Advanced  two  years 

14 

29  8 

Advanced  three  years 

9 

19  2 

Advanced  four  vears  .  . 

6 

12.8 

Judged  by  appearances,  the  above  showing  is  re- 
markably good,  for  61.8  per  cent  of  the  children  are 
advanced  two  years  or  more.  On  the  basis  of  mental 
age,  however,  the  showing  is  strikingly  different. 
Taking  as  our  standard  for  the  first  grade  the  mental 
age  of  6-6  to  7-5;  for  the  second  grade,  mental  age 
7-6  to  8-5,  etc.,  we  have  the  following: 

1  Among  the  twenty-one  superiors  discovered  after  this  study 
was  made,  there  was  a  larger  proportion  of  girls.  One  of  these  tested 
at  174. 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       173 


On  basis  of 
mental  age 


Number       Per  cent 


Retarded  five  years 3  6.4 

Retarded  four  years 10  21 . 3 

Retarded  three  years 12  25 . 5 

Retarded  two  years 11  23.4 

Retarded  one  year 8  17.0 

At-grade 3  6.4 

Advanced 0  0.0 

Reckoning  on  the  basis  of  actual  age,  we  find  an 
average  acceleration  of  slightly  more  than  two  years; 
on  the  basis  of  mental  age,  an  average  retardation  of 
about  2.6  years.  The  story  is  plainly  told  in  Tables 
36  and  37. 

I      II     III    IV     V    VI  VII  VIII  IX     X     XI   XII 


6-7  to  7-6 

1 

1 

1 

7-7  to  8-6 

1 

1 

8-7  to  9-6 

1 

2 

4 

2 

2 

9-7  to  1O-6 

4 

1 

3 

1 

lO-7toll-6 

1 

2 

4 

2 

1 

11-7  to  12-6 

2 

3 

12-7  to  13-6 

1 

2 

13-7  to  14-6 

1 

1 

1 

1 

TABLE  36.  SHOWING  HOW  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN  ARE  ABOVE-GRADE 
ON  THE  BASIS  OF  CHRONOLOGICAL  AGE 

Teachers'  ratings  on  quality  of  school  work.  The 
children  were  graded  by  their  teachers  on  a  scale  of 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5  (very  superior,  superior,  average,  inferior, 
and  very  inferior),  in  each  of  the  school  subjects. 
Each  child's  ratings  in  the  several  subjects  were  then 


174    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

I      II     III    IV     V     VI  VII  VIII   IX     X     XI    XII 


6-7  to  7-6 

7-7  to  8-6 

1 

8-7  to  9-6 

1 

9-7  to  10-6 

1 

lO-7toll-6 

11-7  to  12-6 

2 

2 

12-7  to  13-6 

1 

3 

1 

3 

13-7  to  14-6 

1 

2 

14-7  to  15-6 

3 

3 

2 

1 

15-7  to  16-6 

1 

3 

2 

16-7  to  17-6 

1 

1 

3 

1 

17-7  to  18-6 

, 

2 

2 

1 

18-7  to  19-6 

1 

1 

1 

TABLE  37.  SHOWING  HOW  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN  ARE  BELOW- 
GEADE  ON  THE  BASIS  OF  MENTAL  AGE 

averaged.  The  lowest  average  rating  for  any  child 
was  2.91,  or  slightly  better  than  "average'*  for  all  chil- 
dren. The  highest  was  1.16.  The  461  ratings  in  the 
individual  subjects  were  distributed  as  follows : 

Number  Per  cent 

1,  very  superior 227  49 . 3 

2,  superior 133  28.8 

3,  average 80  17.4 

4,  inferior 15  3.2 

5,  very  inferior 6  1.3 

The  six  ratings  as  low  as  5  ("  very  inferior  ")»  were 
distributed  one  each  in  music,  spelling,  manual  train- 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       175 

ing,  and  language,  and  two  in  writing.  The  fifteen  rat- 
ings of  4  ("inferior"),  were  distributed  as  follows: 
music  three,  spelling  one,  manual  training  two,  drawing 
four,  nature  study  one,  writing  four.  There  are  no 
grades  below  3  ("  average  "),  in  arithmetic,  reading, 
history,  geography,  or  deportment. 

Although  these  children  averaged  about  two  years 
above  grade,  the  ratings  show  that  they  were  doing 
work  of  a  decidedly  superior  quality.  No  wonder, 
since  they  were  still  located  in  grades  below  their 
mental  levels.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
they  would  continue  to  do  superior  work  if  they  were 
promoted  to  the  grades  where  they  belong  by  mental 
age.  Three  had  been  so  promoted,  and  their  average 
school  marks  were  1.44,  2.08,  and  2.55.  Some  of  these 
children  and  also  many  other  superiors  whom  we  have 
tested  have  received  promotion  as  a  result  of  our 
recommendations,  and  we  have  yet  to  find  a  child 
who  failed  to  make  good. 

Educational  measurements.  In  connection  with 
another  investigation  l  all  of  the  public  school  children 
of  Alameda  above  the  fourth  grade  were  given  the 
Courtis  Arithmetic,  Ay  res  Spelling,  and  Stone  Rea- 
soning tests.  Eighteen  of  the  twenty-four  of  Alameda 
were  tested  at  the  same  time. 

The  tests  revealed  the  following  interesting  facts : 

1.  The  average  scores  of  these  superior  children 
were  higher  than  the  average  of  any  of  the  grades  of 
1  By  Mr.  O.  S.  Hubbard. 


176    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

the  city  with  the  exception  of  the  high-eighth.     In 
addition  and  spelling  they  even  excel  the  high-eighth. 

2.  Of  the  six  pupils  in  the  low-fifth  grade,  four  were 
above  the  eighth-grade  median  in  addition  and  sub- 
traction, two  above  the  eighth-grade  median  in  multi- 
plication, two  in  spelling,  and  one  in  division. 

3.  One  girl,  aged  10-2,  low-fifth  grade,  I  Q  148, 
practically  doubled  the  score  of  the  high-eighth  grade 
in  addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication,  and  did 
considerably  better  than  the  eighth  grade  in  division 
and  spelling. 

4.  Two  of  the  six  pupils  in  the  low-fifth  grade  made 
scores  in  arithmetical  reasoning  about  50  per  cent 
higher  than  the  city's  median  for  the  high-seventh 
grade. 

5.  In   arithmetical   reasoning,   the   subject   which 
more  than  any  other  taxes  the  real  mental  ability  of 
the  pupils,  the  average  score  of  the  eighteen  pupils  was 
nearly  two  grades  above  the  city  average  for  the 
grades  in  which  they  were  located. 

Entering  age  and  rate  of  advancement.  Of  the 
forty-nine  subjects  who  had  entered  school  and  for 
whom  data  were  available,  seven  entered  at  five  years, 
twenty-four  at  six  years,  seventeen  at  seven  years,  and 
one  at  eight. 

Of  the  seven  children  who  started  to  school  before 
six  years,  two  skipped  half  of  the  first  grade,  two 
others  the  tnird,  one  the  third  and  seventh,  one  the 
fourth,  and  one  skipped  two  grades  not  designated. 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN      177 

Of  the  twenty-four  who  entered  at  six,  four  skipped 
the  first  grade,  and  seven  others  skipped  half  of  the 
first  grade.  Of  the  seventeen  entering  at  seven,  only 
seven  had  attended  the  first  grade,  three  having  en- 
tered at  once  the, second  grade,  five  the  third  grade, 
one  the  fourth  grade,  and  one  the  sixth  grade. 

It  is  often  argued  by  teachers  that  children  who  are 
allowed  to  skip  grades  will  later  be  handicapped  by 
gaps  in  their  knowledge.  Our  data  show  how  little 
truth  there  is  in  this  view.  Nearly  all  of  these  children 
had  skipped  one  or  more  grades,  yet  their  school  work 
was  in  most  cases  so  superior  as  to  suggest  the  desira- 
bility of  additional  promotions.  Gaps  in  training  are 
quickly  filled.  Of  course,  it  would  be  better  still  if 
school  children  were  so  classified  as  to  permit  superiors 
to  make  maximum  progress  by  continuous  rapid  speed 
without  the  necessity  of  skipping. 

According  to  the  statements  of  the  parents,  of  the 
fifty  who  were  in  school,  thirty  had  been  allowed  by 
their  parents  "  to  go  their  own  pace."  Thirteen  had 
been  mildly  encouraged  by  their  parents  to  make  rapid 
progress  and  to  excel  hi  their  school  work.  Seven 
had  been  purposely  held  back  by  the  parents,  —  a  few 
because  of  ill  health,  others  in  the  belief  that  preco- 
cious mental  development  is  something  to  be  pre- 
vented as  far  as  possible.  In  only  two  cases  had  there 
been  any  serious  attempt  in  the  way  of  intensive  mind 
culture  at  an  early  age.1  "  Only"  children  would  ordi- 
1  See  children  No.  34  and  No.  39,  chapter  xi. 


178    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

narily  be  expected  to  get  more  than  their  share  of  early 
instruction,  but  only  seven  of  our  fifty-nine  cases 
were  only  children,  and  only  two  of  these  had  an  I  Q 
above  143. 

j  Age  of  learning  to  read.  Learning  to  read  consider- 
ably in  advance  of  the  normal  age  of  six  is  a  significant 
indication  of  superior  ability.  It  is  ordinarily  not  un- 
til the  mental  age  of  six  years  that  children  are  able 
to  learn  to  read  as  first-grade  children  are  normally 
expected  to  do.  The  child  of  four  years  who  learns 
to  read  as  readily  as  the  average  child  of  six,  will 
almost  certainly  test  as  high  as  150.  Several  of  the 
children  who  did  not  learn  to  read  before  six  wanted 
to  learn  earlier,  but  were  discouraged  from  doing  so. 
The  one  who  learned  to  read  latest,  between  seven 
and  eight,  was  said  to  have  shown  a  desire  to  learn  to 
read  at  four  years. 

Records  were  obtained  for  forty-nine,  as  follows: 

Between  2  and  3  years,     1,  or    2  per  cent 

"  3  and  4  "  6  "  12  "  " 
"  4  and  5  "  7  "  14  "  " 
"  5  and  6  "  17  "  35  "  " 
6  and  7  "  17  "  35  "  " 
"  7  and  8  "  1  "  2  "  " 

Attitude  toward  school  work.  Both  parents  and 
teachers  were  questioned  regarding  the  attitude 
toward  school  work.  Of  the  fifty  for  whom  data 
were  secured,  forty-three  were  said  to  like  school  very 
much,  three  fairly  well,  and  three  not  particularly  well. 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       179 

One  of  these  was  a  boy  who  was  taught  at  home 
and  did  not  enter  school  until  the  age  of  eight  years, 
just  after  the  death  of  his  mother.  He  entered  at 
once  the  sixth  grade,  the  grade  where  he  belonged  by 
mental  age;  but  the  physical  restraint  in  the  class 
suited  to  twelve-year-olds,  who  had  been  in  school  six 
years,  was  naturally  irksome  to  a  young  child  who  had 
always  been  acccustomed  to  unlimited  freedom.  The 
teachers  did  not  understand  his  case  and  for  a  time  he 
was  very  unhappy.  He  has  since  been  taken  from  the 
public  school,  and  placed  in  a  private  school  where 
the  discipline  is  less  exacting.  As  a  result,  his  attitude 
has  undergone  a  radical  change.  There  were  equally 
good  explanations  in  the  other  two  cases. 

All  but  five  were  very  regular  in  school  attendance, 
and  these  had  missed  time  only  because  of  illness. 
These  five  were  rather  delicate,  yet  in  spite  of  illness 
and  frequent  absence  they  stood  at  the  head  of  their 
classes. 

Play  and  recreation.  It  is  generally  believed  that 
children  of  exceptional  intellectual  ability  are  likely  to 
have  little  interest  in  play.  We  sought  information 
on  this  point  from  the  teachers,  rather  than  from 
the  parents,  in  order  to  secure  an  impartial  judgment 
based  on  a  knowledge  of  many  children.  Of  fifty- 
one  for  whom  data  were  secured,  thirty-eight  were 
described  by  both  teachers  and  parents  as  entirely  nor- 
mal in  their  play.  Seven  of  the  others  were  said  to  play 
less  than  average  children,  but  to  play  normally  when 


180    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

they  do  play.  Three  had  always  been  alone,  and  so 
preferred  to  play  alone.  One  was  too  timid  and  re- 
served to  mingle  well  with  other  children,  and  two 
others  were  said  not  to  care  to  play  with  children  of 
their  own  size.  The  abnormalities  of  play  life  do  not 
appear  to  be  more  numerous  or  more  serious  than 
would  be  found  in  any  group  of  children  picked  at  ran- 
dom from  the  school  population. 

The  data  on  out-of -school  activities  showed  that  our 
superiors  were  accustomed  to  spend  their  time  after 
school  like  average  children,  playing,  practicing  music 
lessons,  doing  chores,  running  errands,  etc.  Satur- 
days were  usually  spent  in  the  same  way,  with  per- 
haps a  dancing  lesson,  a  hike,  or  a  gymnasium  period 
in  addition.  Many  had  gardens  which  they  cared 
for,  several  had  paper  routes,  others  regular  work  in 
a  store  or  elsewhere. 

Twenty-eight  were  taking  private  instruction  in 
music,  twelve  dancing  lessons,  and  four  language 
lessons.  Only  twenty  were  not  receiving  private 
instruction  of  some  kind.  The  time  devoted  to  pri- 
vate lessons,  including  practice,  ranged  from  two 
to  fourteen  hours  per  week,  the  average  being  5.3 
hours. 

The  time  devoted  to  home  reading  ranged  from  two 
to  twenty-one  hours  per  week,  with  an  average  of  7.6 
hours.  The  books  given  as  samples  of  the  children's 
reading  were  classified  as  "good"  or  "mediocre." 
Needless  to  say,  most  fell  in  the  former  group.  Among 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       181 

the  books  and  authors  most  frequently  named  were 
Stevenson,  standard  books  of  history,  Dickens,  Mark 
Twain,  Cooper,  geographical  books,  nature  books, 
Conan  Doyle,  biographies,  Eugene  Field,  Shakes- 
peare, books  of  travel,  Irving,  Scott,  Ben  Hur,  Jack 
London,  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,  Black  Beauty,  Arabian 
Nights,  Alice  in  Wonderland,  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Rob- 
inson Crusoe,  the  Odyssey,  the  Iliad,  Greek  myths, 
Book  of  Knowledge,  JEsop's  Fables,  Bible  Stories, 
books  on  science  and  mechanics,  and  such  magazines 
as  Youth's  Companion,  American  Boy,  Harper's,  St. 
Nicholas,  and  Literary  Digest.  Several  had  evidenced 
a  strong  liking  for  encyclopaedias  and  dictionaries. 

Trait  ratings.  Parent  ratings  on  the  twenty  traits 
were  secured  for  fifty  children,  and  ratings  by  both 
parent  and  teacher  for  forty.  It  was  taken  for  granted 
that  the  parent-ratings  would  be  too  high.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  average  for  the  parent-rating  is  lower  than 
the  average  for  the  teacher-rating  in  the  case  of  nine- 
teen of  the  twenty  traits.  This  is  probably  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  parent  is  compelled  to  take  as  a 
standard  of  comparison  the  child's  brothers,  sisters, 
cousins,  or  friends.  To  the  extent  that  abilities  are 
hereditary  this  would  tend  to  give  a  higher  standard 
than  that  employed  by  teachers,  whose  classes  are 
composed  of  children  of  all  grades  of  ability. 

Table  38  shows  the  individual  traits  arranged  in 
two  rank  orders;  first  according  to  teacher-ratings, 
then  according  to  parent-ratings. 


182    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Trait 

Average 
rating  by 
teachers 

Rank  by 
teachers 

Average 
rating  by 
parents 

Rank  by 
parents 

General  intelligence  
Sustained  attention  

.29 
.44 

1 

2 

.50 
70 

2 
3 

Will  power 

50 

3 

81 

5 

Persistence  ... 

51 

4 

82 

6 

Dependability  

56 

5 

92 

7 

Studiousness  

58 

6 

74 

4 

Cheerfulness  

61 

8 

2  00 

9.5 

Obedience 

61 

8 

2  16 

13 

Conscientiousness 

61 

g 

1  94 

8 

Courage  

62 

10 

2  44 

18 

Unselfishness  

73 

11 

1  42 

1 

Sense  of  humor  

80 

12 

2  00 

9.5 

Evenness  of  temper  

90 

13  5 

2  22 

14 

Intellectual  modesty  
Emotional  self-control  

.90 
1.94 

13.5 
15.5 

2.24 
2.70 

15 

20 

Physical  self  -control 

1  94 

15  5 

2  30 

16 

Initiative  

2  06 

17 

2  08 

11 

General  health  

2  10 

18 

2  14 

12 

Social  adaptability  

2  24 

19 

2  38 

17 

Leadership 

2  41 

20 

2  52 

19 

TABLE  38.  SHOWING  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  THE  TRAIT  RATINGS  BY 
TEACHERS  AND  PARENTS.  (Correlation  between  the  two  rankings 
is  .763) 

The  above  ratings  show  that  the  parents  and  teach- 
ers agreed  closely  on  the  traits  in  which  these  children's 
superiority  is  most  marked.  General  intelligence,  sus- 
tained attention,  will  power,  persistence,  dependabil- 
ity, and  studiousness,  ranked  high  in  the  estimate  of 
both  parents  and  teachers;  social  adaptability  and 
leadership  lowest.  Parents  and  teachers  differed  great- 
est in  their  ratings  on  the  following : 

Unselfishness  parents  rate  higher 

Courage  teachers 

Emotional  self-control  teachers 

Obedience  teachers        "        " 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       183 

In  studiousness,  cheerfulness,  and  general  intelli- 
gence, no  child  was  graded  below  2  by  either  teacher  or 
parent.  In  power  to  give  sustained  attention,  persist- 
ence, will  power,  conscientiousness,  and  dependability, 
only  one  child  was  marked  lower  than  3.  In  power  to 
give  sustained  attention,  persistence,  and  will  power, 
the  mark  4  was  given  to  three  children.  In  courage  and 
sense  of  humor  only  three  of  the  fifty  children  were 
marked  4,  inferior.  In  initiative  only  two  children  were 
marked  4,  and  two  5.  In  unselfishness  four  children 
were  marked  4.  Five  of  the  children  were  below  aver- 
age in  evenness  of  temper,  five  in  intellectual  modesty, 
five  in  general  health,  seven  in  physical  self-control, 
eight  in  emotional  self-control,  ten  in  social  adaptabil- 
ity, and  eleven  in  leadership.  This  is  not  far  from  the 
number  we  would  expect  to  find  below  average  in  an 
ordinary  group  of  children. 

There  are  two  reasons  why  a  rather  large  number 
are  graded  below  average  in  social  adaptability  and 
leadership:  (1)  in  school  most  of  them  are  associated 
with  children  who  are  older  and  whose  greater  physi- 
cal maturity  gives  them  an  advantage  over  our  young 
and  inexperienced  subjects  in  play  activities.  Six  of 
the  children  rated  4  in  social  adaptability  by  the 
teacher  were  rated  either  3  or  2  by  the  parent,  which 
would  indicate  that  among  their  own  special  friends 
and  playmates  they  were  average  in  these  traits. 
(2)  In  a  few  instances  the  child  of  superior  mental 
ability  does  not  care  to  play.  His  preference  for  read- 


184    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

ing  and  private  lessons  prevents  him  from  becoming 
a  leader  or  an  important  member  in  a  social  group. 
However,  13  of  the  89  ratings  in  leadership  were 
1  (14.6  per  cent),  and  18  of  the  ratings  in  social  adap- 
tability (20.2  per  cent).  Five  were  rated  1  in  social 
adaptability  by  both  teacher  and  parent.  The  pro- 
portion of  leaders  is  probably  larger  than  would  be 
found  in  a  group  of  unselected  children. 

Moral  traits.  About  half  the  twenty  traits  on  which 
our  subjects  were  rated  might  be  classified  as  moral 
traits.  " Obedience,"  "conscientiousness,"  "  dependa- 
bility," "unselfishness,"  "evenness  of  temper,"  and 
"  will  power  "  belong  very  definitely  to  this  group.  The 
average  rating  for  the  children  as  a  group  on  these 
traits  was  as  follows : 

Parent  Teacher 

Obedience 2.16  1.51 

Conscientiousness 1 . 94  1 . 61 

Dependability 1.92  1.56 

Unselfishness 1.42  1.73 

Evenness  of  temper 2.22  1 .90 

Willpower 1.81  1.50 

In  all  of  the  moral  traits  except "  unselfishness,"  the 
teachers'  ratings  were  higher  than  those  of  parents. 
The  children  were  rated  higher  by  their  teachers  in 
deportment  than  in  a  majority  of  their  studies.  The 
average  rating  on  deportment  was  1.54,  a  record 
equaled  by  only  three  of  the  school  studies,  and  not 
considerably  exceeded  by  any. 

These  ratings  would  indicate  that  our  subjects  are 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       185 

about  as  superior  morally  as  they  are  intellectually. 
Additional  information  pointing  in  the  same  direc- 
tion was  obtained  in  response  to  the  following  request 
in  the  teacher's  blank:  "Describe  any  moral  faults  or 
peculiarities  such  as  disobedience,  obstinacy,  dishonesty, 
selfishness,  inability  to  get  on  with  others,  unusual  or  a&- 
normal  sex  interests,  lack  of  balance,  etc. ' '  Data  were  se- 
cured for  fifty-three  children.  Of  these,  forty-six  were 
said  to  have  no  moral  faults  or  peculiarities  worthy  of 
mention.  Of  the  remaining  seven,  one  "  takes  pleasure 
in  others'  mistakes,"  one  has  "  a  rather  bad  disposi- 
tion," one  cries  very  easily,  one  is  obstinate  and  "  lacks 
will  power  to  make  himself  do  the  things  he  does  n't 
like"  (certain  of  the  school  work),  one  girl  is  "very 
much  interested  in  boys,"  and  another  girl  is  "  shy" 
and  "  reticent."  Practically  all  of  these  faults  are  such 
as  would  hardly  be  thought  deserving  of  mention  in 
the  case  of  average  children.  They  stand  out  in  these 
children  by  contrast  with  their  general  superiority  in 
other  traits.  There  is  only  one  child  in  the  entire  group 
who  appeared  to  be  seriously  lacking  along  moral  lines.1 
The  typical  superior  is  exceptionally  lovable  and 
charming,  the  kind  of  child  one  would  like  to  adopt. 
Health  and  physical  traits.  The  average  rating  by 
parents  on  general  health  was  2.14;  by  teachers,  2.10. 
There  were  only  two  ratings  of  5  ("very  inferior") 
and  two  of  4  ("  inferior  ").  On  the  other  hand,  there 
were  twenty-eight  ratings  of  1  ("very  superior"). 
1  See  child  No.  33,  chapter  xi. 


186    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Only  four  were  said  to  have  defective  vision,  and 
only  one  defective  hearing.  Twenty-one  had  under- 
gone operation  for  removal  of  adenoids,  and  two  others 
were  known  to  have  more  or  less  adenoid  trouble.  The 
record  for  tonsils  was  similar.  The  fact  that  approxi- 
mately half  of  our  superior  children  have  had  either 
adenoids  or  diseased  tonsils  suggests  that  these  defects 
may  not  be  as  injurious  to  mental  development  as 
common  opinion  would  have  us  believe. 

One  had  chorea  a  few  years  ago,  but  has  recovered. 
Two  others  had  noticeable  muscular  twitchings. 
There  were  two  stutterers  in  the  group,  both  of  whom 
at  the  time  of  the  investigation  were  taking  corrective 
lessons.  There  were  no  cases  of  abnormal  fears.  A 
part  of  the  nervousness  and  restlessness  occasionally 
mentioned  was  probably  due  to  their  not  having 
enough  school  work  to  keep  them  busy.  One  boy, 
asked  how  he  liked  school,  said  he  liked  it  in  the 
morning  but  not  in  the  afternoon,  because  by  noon 
he  always  knew  his  lessons  and  then  there  was  nothing 
to  do!  So  much  has  been  said  about  the  nervous  un- 
balance of  precocious  children  that  it  is  surprising  to 
find  over  two  thirds  described  as  free  from  symptoms 
of  this  kind.  The  symptoms  of  most  of  the  others  in- 
dicated nothing  serious.  The  proportion  of  stutter- 
ing and  chorea  was  not  far  from  that  which  is  usually 
found  for  unselected  children. 

All  but  three  of  the  children  were  said  to  sleep  "  per- 
fectly." The  average  time  of  sleep  for  the  children  of 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       187 

each  age  was  found  to  be  slightly  greater  than  the 
Terman  and  Hocking  averages  for  2692  unselected 
school  children.1  There  was  no  case  of  marked  sleep 
deficiency. 

Of  the  nine  who  were  said  to  have  occasional  head- 
aches, eight  have  them  very  seldom,  not  more  than 
two  or  three  times  a  year.  One  had  long  been  subject 
to  serious  recurrent  headaches. 

Five  were  described  as  "  not  strong."  One  of  these 
had  always  been  sickly  and  at  the  age  of  eight  years 
had  only  attended  school  one  year.  In  that  year,  how- 
ever, he  did  the  work  of  the  first  three  grades.  Another 
of  these  has  also  had  insecure  health  from  birth.  He 
did  not  enter  school  until  the  age  of  fourteen.  Be- 
tween the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  he  had  only  one  hour 
per  day  of  private  instruction,  and  in  that  time  com- 
pleted the  work  of  the  first  eight  grades.  The  other 
three  of  the  five  were  apparently  just  not  strong 
enough  to  endure  serious  physical  strain  or  excitement. 
Only  three  were  seriously  handicapped  by  ill  health,  a 
record  which  would  probably  not  be  excelled  by  an 
equal  number  of  school  children  picked  at  random. 

Table  39  gives  the  ranges  for  age  of  walking  and  talk- 
ing in  comparison  with  those  for  Mead's  two  groups 
of  normal  and  feeble-minded  children. 

1  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  and  Hocking,  Adeline:  "The  Sleep  of 
School  Children;  Its  Distribution  According  to  Age  and  Its  Relation 
to  Physical  and  Mental  Efficiency";  Journal  of  Educational  Psychol- 
ogy (1913),  pp.  138-47;  199-208;  269-82.  See  also  chapter  xx  of  L. 
M.  Terman's  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child  for  a  digest  of  this  study. 


188    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


Range 

Months 
Median 

Average 

Walking 

Mead's  normal  group*  . 

11-30 

13  54 

14 

Mead's  feeble-minded  group  
Superior  children  group  

12-72 
9-18 

21.  GO 
13  00 

24 
13  4 

Talking 
Mead's  normal  group    .  . 

9-25 

15  80 

16 

Mead's  feeble-minded  group  .  .  . 

12-156 

34  44 

36 

Superior  children  group  

6-24 

12  00 

13 

TABLE  39.  AGE  OF  WALKING  AND  TALKING  FOR  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN 

AS  COMPARED  WITH  FEEBLE-MlNDED  AND  NORMAL 

*  C.  D.  Mead:  The  Relations  of  General  Intelligence  to  Certain  Mental  and  Phy- 
sical Traits.     Teachers  College,  1916;  pp.  117. 

The  average  age  of  learning  to  walk  is  a  little  more 
than  half  a  month  lower  for  our  superiors  than  for 
Mead's  normals,  and  nearly  eleven  months  below  the 
average  for  his  feeble-minded.  The  difference  in  aver- 
age age  of  learning  to  talk  is  greater,  our  superiors 
being  three  months  ahead  of  Mead's  normals  and 
twenty -three  months  ahead  of  his  feeble-minded. 

Social  status  and  heredity.  We  have  classified  our 
children  according  to  the  occupational  status  of  the 
fathers,  basing  the  classification  upon  Taussig's  five 
occupational  groups.  Our  subjects  classify  as  follows: 

Class  1 31,  or  53  per  cent 

Class  2 22,  or  37     "      " 

Class  3 6,  or  10     "      " 

Class  4 0 

Class  5 0 

The  results  indicate  that  parents  of  a  grade  of  in- 
telligence low  enough  to  keep  them  in  the  unskilled 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       189 

or  semi-skilled  class  are  not  likely  to  produce  children 
of  the  grade  of  ability  represented  in  this  study.  Of 
the  seventeen  subjects  testing  above  150 1  Q,  sixty-five 
per  cent  belonged  to  class  1,  thirty -five  per  cent  to 
class  2,  and  none  to  class  3.  Several  children  of  the 
two  lower  social  groups  were  brought  to  our  attention 
and  were  tested,  but  in  no  case  was  the  I  Q  above  130. 
There  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  over- 
estimate the  intelligence  of  such  children.  The  labor- 
er's child  of  130  I  Q  attracts  about  as  much  notice  as 
a  college  professor's  child  testing  at  150. 

Information  was  sought  regarding  the  child's 
brothers  and  sisters,  parents,  grandparents,  cousins, 
uncles,  aunts,  and  any  other  relatives  of  superior  ability. 
Twenty -nine  of  the  parents  mentioned  relatives  whom 
they  considered  superior.  Fifty-one  superior  uncles, 
thirty-seven  superior  aunts,  and  numerous  cousins  and 
remote  relatives  were  mentioned.  The  large  major- 
ity of  the  children  had  at  least  one  grandparent  known 
to  be  a  superior.  Among  the  more  remote  ancestors 
mentioned  were  Whistler,  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Samuel 
Adams,  Roger  Williams,  Colonel  Crawford,  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson,  Stonewall  Jackson,  John  Hancock, 
Hancock  Jackson  (a  governor  of  Missouri),  and  Arch- 
bishop Tait.  Others  whose  names  were  not  given 
were  designated  as  "  a  sculptor,"  "  an  artist,"  "  a  me- 
chanical genius,"  "  an  eminent  man  in  the  South  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,"  "  a  president  of  a  western  college," 
"  an  inventor,"  and  "  an  exceptional  musician." 


190    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

That  the  parents  of  our  superior  children  were 
themselves  superiors  is  further  indicated  by  the  extent 
of  their  education.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  twelve 
parents  for  whom  data  were  available,  fifty-two 
(46.4  per  cent)  were  college  graduates,  and  ninety-one 
(81.2  per  cent)  were  graduates  of  a  secondary  school. 
In  the  population  at  large,  the  proportion  of  college 
graduates  is  probably  not  more  than  one  fortieth  as 
high,  and  the  proportion  of  high-school  graduates 
probably  not  more  than  one  tenth  as  high,  as  that 
found  for  the  parents  of  our  superiors.  Of  the  one 
hundred  and  twelve  parents,  sixteen  (14.3  per  cent) 
had  done  post-graduate  work  in  a  college  or  university. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  grandparents 
for  whom  data  were  secured,  seventy -two  (42.4  per 
cent)  were  graduates  of  a  secondary  school,  while 
twenty-three  (13.4  per  cent)  were  graduates  of  a  col- 
lege or  professional  school.  When  we  consider  the 
limited  opportunities  for  higher  education  at  the  time 
when  these  grandparents  were  youths,  this  record  is 
hardly  less  remarkable  than  that  of  the  parents.  It 
is  evident  that  most  of  these  children  had  sprung  from 
a  decidedly  superior  stock. 

Does  the  superiority  tend  to  disappear?  Excep- 
tional brightness  in  children  is  often  regarded  as  merely 
a  matter  of  precocious  development,  the  assumption 
being  that  the  final  level  attained  is  ordinarily  no 
higher  than  in  the  case  of  children  who  test  at  average- 
normal.  This  assumption  finds  no  support  in  any  of 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       191 

the  exact  observations  that  have  been  made.  Several 
studies  have  shown  statistically  that  children  who 
make  exceptionally  good  records  in  the  lower  grades 
also  as  a  rule  make  superior  records  in  the  high  school, 
and  the  correlation  between  high-school  grades  and 
college  grades  has  also  been  found  to  be  positive  and 
high. 

We  have  had  a  number  of  superior  children  under 
observation  for  six  to  eight  years,  and  in  no  case  has 
there  been  any  indication  of  a  tendency  toward  deteri- 
oration to  the  level  of  average.  If  there  were  any  con- 
stant tendency  toward  deterioration  this  should  reveal 
itself  in  a  decrease  of  the  I  Q  with  increase  of  age. 
However,  re-tests  of  superiors  show  that  the  I  Q  is 
more  likely  to  increase.  Of  our  fifty-nine  superiors, 
nineteen  have  been  tested  two  or  more  times.  The 
greatest  loss  in  the  re-tests  was  10  points,  while  the 
greatest  gain  was  21  points.  The  central  tendency 
was  toward  a  gain  of  2.08  points.1  (See,  for  example, 
Figures  21  and  22,  pp.  153  and  154.) 

The  results  of  the  re-tests  are  corroborated  by  an- 
other line  of  evidence.  One  year  after  this  study  was 
made,  the  parents  of  the  fifty -nine  superiors  were 
asked  to  re-rate  the  children  on  each  of  the  twenty 
traits,  and  to  give  detailed  information  regarding  any 
change^hat  had  occurred  in  health,  social  adaptabil- 

1  FH^^er^is  superiors  of  130  I  Q  or  above  become  adult  the  I Q 
rating  faijIHrowthem  justice,  as  the  highest  1  Q  possible  for  an  adult 
is  122  by  the'Sttanford-Binet.  Children  of  140  I Q  are  not  adequately 
measured  above  thirteen  or  fourteen  years.  (See  p.  147.) 


192    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

ity,  quality  of  school  marks,  and  ease  with  which 
school  work  was  done.  Replies  were  received  for 
fifty-one  children.  For  no  child  did  the  average  rating 
on  the  twenty  traits  show  any  considerable  change 
from  that  of  the  year  before.  The  gains  and  losses 
were  all  slight,  and  almost  exactly  balanced  each  other. 
The  results  on  health,  school  marks,  ease  of  carrying 
school  work,  and  social  adaptability  were  as  follows: 

Bet-         The  Not  so 

ter          same  good 

Health 3  44  4 

School  marks 5  40  6 

Ease  of  school  work 2  47  2 

Social  adaptability 9  42  0 

On  the  whole,  the  amount  of  change  appears  well- 
nigh  insignificant.  Such  changes  as  occurred  in  social 
adaptability,  which  constitutes  the  greatest  problem 
for  superiors,  were  all  in  the  direction  of  improvement. 

There  is  one  circumstance  which  tends  to  make  the 
superiority  of  bright  children  less  apparent  (but  not 
less  real)  with  increase  of  age.  In  the  lower  and  mid- 
dle grades  all  the  children  attend  school,  and  the  supe- 
rior child  in  these  grades  is  compared  with  the  average 
for  children  in  general.  In  the  upper  grades  the  chil- 
dren of  inferior  ability  are  rapidly  eliminated,  and  here 
the  superior  is  compared  with  "  survivors  "  who  com- 
pose a  highly  selected  group.  For  this  reason,  the 
child  who  is  correctly  rated  as  "  very  superior  "  in  the 
fifth  grade  may  rank  as  merely  "superior"  in  high 
school,  and  perhaps  as  only  "  average  "  in  college.  He 


FACTS  ABOUT  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       193 

has  not  deteriorated;  the  average  for  his  class  has 
gone  up. 

Conclusions.  The  data  which  have  been  presented 
in  this  chapter  justify  the  following  tentative  conclu- 
sions : 

1.  That  intellectually  superior  children  are  appar- 
ently not  below  the  average  in  general  health; 

2.  That  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  their  ability  is 
general  rather  than  special  or  one-sided; 

3.  That  the  superiority  is  especially  marked  in 
moral  and  personal  traits; 

4.  That  "  queerness,"  play  deficiency,  and  marked 
lack  of  social  adaptability  are  the  exception  rather 
than  the  rule; 

5.  That  while  superior  children  are  likely  to  be 
accelerated  on  the  basis  of  chronological  age,  they  are 
usually  two  or  three  grades  retarded  on  the  basis  of 
mental  age; 

6.  That  their  school  work  is  such  as  to  warrant 
promotion  in  most  cases  to  a  grade  closely  correspond- 
ing to  the  mental  age; 

7.  That  the  superiority  tends  to  show  early  in  life, 
is  little  influenced  by  formal  instruction,  and  is  per- 
manent; 

8.  That  superior  children  usually  come  from  superior 
families. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CASE  STUDIES  OF  FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN 

THUS  far  our  discussion  of  superior  children  has  been 
impersonal  and  statistical.  We  have  sought  to  find 
out  what  is  true  of  such  children  in  general,  as  regards 
their  physical,  mental,  and  moral  traits  and  the  in- 
fluences which  would  explain  them.  This  chapter  will 
be  devoted  to  brief  descriptions  of  typical  cases,  in 
order  that  teachers  may  see  in  a  concrete  way  what 
the  superior  child  is  like  and  sense  the  pedagogical 
implications  of  his  presence  in  the  school.  The  case 
studies  to  be  presented  could  easily  have  been  expanded 
to  the  length  of  a  chapter  for  each  child,  and  such  de- 
tailed descriptions  would  be  of  the  greatest  interest. 
Our  present  purpose,  however,  permits  only  summary 
treatment  of  the  most  salient  facts  regarding  a  limited 
number  of  typical  cases. 

Most  of  the  children  to  be  described  belong  to  the 
group  discussed  in  the  foregoing  chapter.  Apart  from 
the  results  of  the  Binet  test,  the  data  to  be  set  forth 
were  in  most  cases  furnished  by  teachers  and  parents. 
Their  statements  have  been  in  part  summarized  and 
in  part  quoted,  though  usually  with  abbreviations 
and  with  omissions  of  matters  of  secondary  interest. 
The  "trait  rating"  mentioned  is  always  the  average 
rating  given  (by  teacher  or  parent)  on  the  twenty 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         195 

physical  and  mental  traits  named  on  p.  182.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  in  these  ratings  1  is  "very  su- 
perior," 2  "superior,"  3  "average,"  4  "inferior,"  and 
5  "very  inferior."  It  will  be  noted  that  in  no  case 
does  the  average  rating  of  a  child  on  the  twenty  traits, 
either  by  parent  or  teacher,  fall  as  low  as  3. 

No.  1.  Boy:  E.  M.1  Illustrating  exceptionally  rapid 
school  progress  and  unusual  will  power. 

First  test:  age  6-11;  mental  age  10-0;  I  Q  145;  not 
in  school. 

Second  test:  age  7-10i;  mental  age  13-2;  I  Q  167; 
fourth  grade. 

Third  test :  age  10-0;  mental  age  16-7;  I Q  166;  high- 
eighth  grade. 

In  the  second  examination  (age  7-10)  E.  passed  the 
induction  test,2  the  arithmetical  reasoning  and  the 
clock  test  in  year  14,  the  code  test  and  six  digits  back- 
ward in  Average  Adult,  and  repeated  eight  digits 
direct  order  and  seven  digits  reverse  order  in  Superior 
Adult. 

When  E.  was  tested  at  the  age  of  6-11  and  earned 
an  I  Q  above  140,  the  prediction  was  made  that  he 
would  be  able  to  enter  high  school  at  the  age  of  11 

1  See  brief  description  of  E.  M.  at  age  of  eight,  in  Terman,  Lewis 
M.  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1916), 
p.  100. 

2  These  different  tests  are  all  described  at  length  in  Terman's  The 
Measurement  of  Intelligence,  which  see. 


196    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

years,  or  possibly  at  the  age  of  10.  He  did  so  at  the 
age  of  10-5,  having  completed  the  work  of  eight  grades 
in  three  years.  Practically  every  mark,  except  in 
handwork,  has  been  perfect.  He  entered  the  first 
grade  at  7j  years.  On  the  first  day  of  school  he  was 
placed  in  the  first  grade,  but  within  an  hour  he  was 
promoted  to  the  second  grade,  by  noon  to  the  third, 
and  to  the  fourth  before  the  end  of  the  school  day. 
His  teacher  had  studied  exceptional  children  and  was 
able  to  recognize  superior  ability.  Under  the  average 
teacher  it  would  probably  have  taken  E.  two  years 
instead  of  one  day  to  reach  the  fourth  grade. 

E.'s  father  is  a  professional  man:  the  mother  a  uni- 
versity graduate  and  formerly  a  teacher.  The  mater- 
nal grandmother  was  a  university  graduate  and  a 
school  principal  of  more  than  ordinary  ability  in  math- 
ematics. E.'s  ability  in  mathematics  is  also  marked. 

Parents9  notes.  Health  record  good.  Ability  is 
fairly  general,  but  somewhat  special.  More  marked 
along  mathematical  and  scientific  lines  than  others. 
Wonderfully  adept  at  arranging  and  classifying  facts. 
When  between  three  and  four  years  of  age  could  add 
long  numbers.  Learned  to  read  at  the  age  of  5  by 
following  his  mother  around  and  asking  the  names  of 
letters,  and  soon  afterward  surprised  his  parents  by 
reading  fluently  out  of  a  primer.  Has  had  no  formal 
home  instruction,  but  parents  have  been  careful  to 
answer  all  his  questions.  Does  little  studying  at  home 
and  reads  only  about  seven  hours  per  week.  Spends 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         197 

his  spare  time  in  play,  delivering  papers,  etc.  Excep- 
tionally dependable  and  takes  life  seriously.  Helps 
his  father  a  great  deal  in  the  office,  and  can  be  safely 
entrusted  with  important  responsibilities  in  the  de- 
tails of  office  work.  Has  sometimes  to  be  kept  out  of 
such  work  because  of  worrying  about  getting  it  through 
promptly  and  accurately.  Average  parent  rating  on 
traits,  2.05. 

Later  report,  age  10,  eighth  grade.  Health  excel- 
lent. Reads  more  and  does  less  statistics.  Work  in 
manual  training  still  mediocre.  School  marks  excel- 
lent, but  not  quite  as  good  as  formerly.  "He  seems 
to  have  his  hands  full  for  the  first  time  in  his  life." 
Growing  more  adaptable  and  agreeable.  Elected  to 
various  offices  in  school.  Parents'  rating  on  traits  at 
this  time,  2.08,  about  the  same  as  before. 

Teacher's  notes.  Ability  not  altogether  even.  Spell- 
ing and  arithmetic  perfect.  At  the  age  of  8  did  the 
work  of  the  eighth  grade  hi  mental  arithmetic  tests. 
Has  a  wonderful  memory  for  facts,  but  does  not  often 
ask  for  reasons  or  explanations.  "  Ability  above  aver- 
age in  all  lines,  but  especially  so  in  statistics,  facts,  or 
anything  capable  of  formal  array.  Can  tell  the  study 
and  recitation  schedule  of  every  class,  and  remembers 
the  lesson  assignment  for  all  the  other  pupils;  can  tell 
who  missed  certain  words  yesterday  in  any  class." 
Rather  enjoys  the  mistakes  of  others.  Exceptionally 
calm  and  quiet.  Teacher's  average  rating  on  traits, 
2.10. 


198    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

One  of  the  most  interesting  things  about  E.  is  the 
fact  that  his  school  record  has  been  better  than  that 
of  many  other  superior  children  testing  fully  as  high. 
To  one  who  knows  him  the  reason  is  clear.  His  will 
power  and  determination  are  about  as  superior  as  his 
intelligence.  He  will  not  allow  any  one  to  excel  him 
in  mental  work.  In  manual  training,  however,  his 
work  is  inferior  even  to  that  of  the  average  child  of  his 
age. 

No.  2.  Boy:  H.  B.  Illustrating  extreme  retardation 
in  school,  although  nearly  as  bright  as  No.  1. 

Age  8-7;  mental  age  12-10;  I  Q  150;  low-third  grade. 

Vocabulary  score,  44.  Passed  the  box  test  and  re- 
peated six  digits  backward  in  Average  Adult. 

With  a  mental  age  of  nearly  13  years,  H.  is  in  the 
grade  which  corresponds  to  his  actual  age  of  8j.  His 
mother  wants  him  advanced  because,  she  says,  "He 
gets  so  tired  of  school  when  he  finds  it  so  easy  to  keep 
ahead  of  his  class."  However,  he  has  only  been  in 
school  one  year  and  has  been  allowed  to  pass  through 
two  grades  in  five  months. 

Parents'  notes.  Was  seriously  ill  for  some  time  in 
his  first  year.  Health  now  good,  except  for  occasional 
digestive  trouble.  Slightly  nervous. 

At  the  age  of  5>\  read  like  an  average  pupil  in  the 
second  grade.  At  7  read  everything  from  children's 
books  to  newspapers  and  magazines,  reading  every 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         199 

word  and  understanding  the  text.  At  5  years  read 
numbers  to  the  thousands.  At  5^  counted  to  a  thou- 
sand. No  special  instruction  beyond  answering  his 
questions  in  a  simple,  truthful  and  thorough  manner. 
Has  unusual  ability  in  oral  expression.  Average 
parent  rating  on  traits,  2.00. 

Later,  age  9j,  in  the  high-fourth  grade.  Health 
good.  Greatly  interested  in  the  progress  of  the  war, 
inventions,  conversation,  etc.  Doing  well  in  piano 
lessons.  He  ranks  with  one  other  pupil  as  the  best  in 
his  class.  No  home  work.  At  ease  in  any  group  and 
evidently  a  natural  leader.  Average  teacher  rating 
on  traits  at  this  time,  1.20,  or  considerably  better  than 
before. 

Teacher's  notes.  "  He  is  very  musical.  His  mental 
ability,  however,  is  general.  Says  he  expects  to  *  know 
lots  of  things/  Would  read  continually,  if  permitted." 

No.  3.  Boy :  A.  W.  Illustrating  the  value  of  men- 
tal tests  in  school  grading. 

Age  5-8;  mental  age  7-6;  I  Q  132;  not  in  school. 
Age  6-8;  mental  age  8-8;  I  Q  130;  second  grade. 

At  the  age  of  5-8  passed  all  but  the  vocabulary  test 
in  year  8,  arranged  the  weights  in  year  9,  and  passed 
the  three-word  test  in  year  10. 

As  a  result  of  the  test  the  father,  a  superintendent 
of  schools,  was  urged  to  send  the  boy  to  school  at  once 
and  to  see  whether  he  would  not  be  able  to  complete 


200    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

the  first  two  grades  in  one  year.  A  few  months  later 
the  father  wrote  as  follows : "  A.  is  learning  to  read  very 
rapidly.  In  four  weeks  he  has  learned  to  read  the 
entire  primer  of  137  pages.  Four  weeks  ago  he  could 
not  read  a  line."  A  year  later,  at  the  age  of  6-8,  A. 
was  leading  his  class  in  the  second  grade,  and  at  the 
age  of  7  years  was  doing  splendid  work  in  the  low-third 
grade.  The  father  writes  at  this  time,  "  A.  seems  more 
interested  now  than  ever.  School  marks  excellent 
and  the  work  perfectly  easy." 

It  is  altogether  probable  that  but  for  the  test  and 
for  the  fact  that  the  father  was  superintendent  of 
schools,  and  therefore  able  to  secure  extra  promotions, 
A.  would  have  gone  through  school  without  ever  hav- 
ing an  opportunity  to  do  work  commensurate  with  his 
ability. 

No.  4.  Boy:  S.  S.  Brother  of  R.  S.,  No.  5.  Il- 
lustrating exceptional  mental  balance.  Later  devel- 
opment predicted. 

Age  4-7;  mental  age  6-8;  I  Q  145. 
Age  5-10;  mental  age  8-9;  I  Q  150. 
Age  7-0;  mental  age  10-8;  I  Q  153. 

At  the  time  of  the  third  test  S.  had  not  yet  started 
to  school.  Vocabulary  score  at  the  age  of  7, 28  words.1 
At  this  time  passed  four  tests  in  year  12,  including 
abstract  words,  ball  and  field,  fables  and  similarities. 

1  Indicating  a  totaj  vocabulary  of  approximately  5000  words, 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         201 

In  the  induction  test,  year  14,  announced  the  rule 
governing  number  of  holes  before  the  end  of  the  ex- 
periment, but  was  unable  to  double  16. 

The  following  notation  appears  on  the  record  for  the 
first  test,  when  S.  was  4|  years  old:  "  By  8  years  S.  will 
test  llj."  His  test  at  the  age  of  7  gave  him  a  mental 
age  of  10-8,  so  it  appears  the  prediction  will  be  more 
than  fulfilled. 

Parents'  notes.  No  serious  illness  except  the  ordi- 
nary children's  diseases.  Has  always  shown  remark- 
able power  of  reasoning.  Has  had  little  home  instruc- 
tion, but  is  reading  in  the  second  reader  (age  7).  Is 
omnivorous  as  to  the  books  he  wants  read  to  him. 
French  lessons  twice  a  week  and  some  instruction  on 
the  piano.  Allowed  to  go  his  own  pace.  '*  However, 
we  have  always  answered  his  questions  truthfully  and 
fully.  We  have  always  allowed  him  to  take  the  initia- 
tive, have  never  suggested  his  memorizing  anything, 
have  never  forced  anything  on  his  attention."  Early 
ambition  was  to  be  a  railroad  engineer.  Recently  he 
cherishes  the  hope  of  becoming  a  reformer!  Average 
parent  rating  on  traits,  2.00. 

S.  is  a  most  lovable  boy,  quiet  and  retiring  yet  not 
bashful.  His  bearing  is  one  of  very  modest  dignity. 
He  is  perfectly  unspoiled.  Father  a  college  professor 
of  journalistic  experience;  mother  a  college  graduate  of 
unusual  ability  and  marked  musical  talent.  Several 
relatives  of  superior  ability.  S.  developed  much  earlier 


202    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

in  childhood  than  his  sister  (who  tests  at  147)  and  gave 
somewhat  more  evidence  of  superior  ability. 

No.  5.  Girl:  R.  S.  Sister  of  S.  S.,  No.  4.  Artis- 
tic ability  and  marked  emotionality.  Underrated  by 
parents. 

Age  4-10;  mental  age  7-1;  I  Q  147;  not  in  school. 

Wonderfully  responsive.  Full  of  life  and  the  picture 
of  health.  Talked. most  charmingly  and  with  utter 
lack  of  self -consciousness  all  the  way  from  her  home  to 
the  laboratory  where  she  was  to  be  tested.  Although 
less  than  5  years  old,  she  passed  the  test  of  arranging 
weights  in  year  9.  The  parents  were  greatly  surprised 
that  her  I  Q  equaled  that  of  her  brother.  They  had 
probably  not  made  sufficient  allowance  for  the  differ- 
ence in  age. 

Parents9  notes.  R.'s  aptitude  is  described  by  her 
parents  as  being  in  the  direction  of  artistic  expression. 
"  She  sings  wonderfully  true  to  time  and  key  and 
dances  with  natural  grace.  She  has  acquired  a  sure- 
ness  of  stroke  hi  drawing  which  an  equal  amount  of 
Montessori  training  never  gave  her  brother.  She  has 
natural  dramatic  ability,  but  lacks  the  development  of 
abstract  thinking  which  characterized  her  brother. 
She  has  never  been  asked  to  learn  anything,  although 
her  questions  have  always  been  answered  fully  and 
truthfully.  However,  she  has  never  asked  as  many  or 
varied  questions  as  her  brother,  from  whom  she  has 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         203 

learned  most  of  what  she  knows."  Average  parent 
rating  on  traits,  2.85.  Obedience  and  emotional  self- 
control  were  both  rated  5.  R.  is  said  to  be  emo- 
tional, impatient,  and  inclined  to  fly  into  fits  of 
screaming  if  things  displease  her.  Play  life  normal. 

No.  6.  Boy:  J.  S. l  Lovable  disposition.  Indica- 
tions of  literary  ability. 

Age  8-2;  mental  age  11-4;  I  Q  138;  high-fourth 
grade. 

Age  11-0;  mental  age  15-2;  I  Q  136;  high-seventh 
grade. 

Age  12-3;  mental  age  17-7;  I  Q  144;  high  school. 

J.'s  I  Q  is  by  no  means  as  high  as  many  others  we 
have  found,  but  he  has  such  a  winning  personality, 
charming  disposition,  and  uniform  ability  that  we 
consider  him  one  of  our  most  promising  superiors. 

The  father  was, a  man  of  superior  ability,  and  the 
mother  had  been  secretary  of  a  large  business  firm. 
Both  parents  died  several  years  ago,  and  J.  has  been 
reared  by  his  aunt.  On  his  twelfth  birthday  J.  handed 
his  aunt  a  beautiful  letter  which  he  had  written,  on 
his  own  initiative,  to  express  his  appreciation  of  the 
way  she  had  cared  for  him.  This  is  typical  of  his 
loving  and  lovable  disposition. 

1  See  brief  description  of  J.  S.  at  the  age  of  8  years,  in  The 
Measurement  of  Intelligence,  Lewis  M.  Terman  (Hough ton  Mifflin 
Co.,  1916),  p.  99. 


204    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

J.'s  unusual  talent  for  writing  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing poems  written  before  his  eighth  birthday. 
They  are  reproduced  without  change  of  spelling  or 
punctuation: 

Christmas 

Hurrah  for  Christmas 
And  all  it's  joys 
That  come  that  day 
For  girls  and  boys. 

Flowers 

Flowers  in  the  gaiylen. 
That  is  all  you  see 
Who  likes  them  best? 
That's  the  honey  bee.' 

My  mother 's  busy 

My  mother  is  very  busy  today 
And  all  I  have  to  do  is  play. 
If  I  only  knew  what  she  had  to  do 
I'd  like  to  help  her,  would  n't  you? 

What  a  trouble  washing  day; 
It  seems  my  mother  can  never  play. 
I  wonder  if  she  '11  get  tired  out 
From  walking,  walking  all  about. 


Here  is  Sunday,  —  resting  day; 
That's  the  best  thing  I  can  say. 
We  go  to  church  and  pray  and  pray,  — 
That's  the  hardest  thing  I  say. 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         205 

Before  the  age  of  eight  J.  amused  himself  by  writing 
fables  to  which  he  always  attached  a  correct  moral.1 
The  following  is  a  sample: 

A  Fable  —  The  Selfish  Boy  and  the  Poor  Girl 

Once  there  was  a  rich  boy  in  a  city  and  he  went  into  a 
candy  store  and  bought  some  candy.  When  he  came  out  he 
still  had  a  lot  of  money.  While  he  was  walking  down  the 
street  he  met  a  little  girl  selling  shoe  laces.  He  just  kept 
on  eating  candy  and  did  not  buy  anything  from  her  or  even 
offer  her  a  piece  of  candy. 

About  a  month  later  the  rich  boy's  house  was  robbed  and 
this  little  girl  was  getting  a  lot  of  money.  The  boy  now  had 
to  go  around  selling  and  he  met  the  girl  many  times,  but  she 
never  helped  him  because  when  she  had  been  poor  he  did 
not  help  her. 

Moral:  Those  you  do  not  help  will  not  help  you. 

No.  7.  Boy:  T.  B.  All-round  ability,  with  special 
interest  in  medicine.  Musical  family. 

Age  10-5;  mental  age  15-2;  I  Q  146;  sixth  grade. 

Vocabulary  score  64,  which  is  practically  median 
for  mental  age  16.  Passed  the  ingenuity  test  in 
Superior  Adult. 

Father  French,  mother  American.  A  great  grand- 
uncle  was  Meyerbeer,  the  French  composer.  Another 
uncle  is  a  locally  well-known  violinist  and  composer. 

Parents'  notes.    T.  has  always  been  perfectly  healthy 

1  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Stanford-Bmet  test  of  fable 
interpretation  brings  an  average  of  only  two  successes  for  five  fables 
at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  four  successes  for  five  fables  at  the  Average 
Adult  level. 


206    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

except  for  slight  nervousness.  Somewhat  myopic. 
Learned  to  talk  at  7  months.  School  work  easy;  does 
little  home  work  except  in  the  practice  of  music,  of 
which  he  is  very  fond.  Shows  a  remarkable  interest 
in  medical  science.  All  his  childish  games  and  all  his 
reading  have  tended  in  this  direction  almost  from  the 
time  he  could  talk.  "  Have  tried  to  hold  him  back 
because  of  his  tender  age  and  temperament."  Al- 
though healthy,  he  has  always  been  high  strung.  Chief 
indications  of  superiority,  his  passionate  desire  to 
learn  and  his  obsession  for  medicine. 

Teacher's  notes.  School  work  excellent,  except 
drawing.  "  T.  expresses  his  thoughts  on  any  subject 
in  a  marvelous  way  for  a  boy  of  his  age.  He  is  capable 
both  in  his  oral  and  written  work.  Very  studious  and 
interested  in  his  work.  His  power  of  attention  some- 
times seems  lacking,  but  when  I  have  called  it  to 
his  attention  on  certain  occasions  he  has  said,  *  I  was 
only  day-dreaming.' >:i  Very  adaptable  socially.  Abso- 
lutely unspoiled.  Very  conscientious  and  unassuming. 
Enjoys  reading  medical  works,  especially  in  the  sur- 
gical line.  Reads  from  a  medical  encyclopaedia.  Also 
studies  electricity  and  likes  to  experiment.  Very 
strong  sense  of  truth  and  marked  straight-forwardness. 

T.  is  probably  one  of  the  most  promising  of  our 
superiors.  His  interest  in  medicine  was  evident  in  the 
sixty-word  test,  in  which  he  gave  the  names  of  numer- 
ous bones,  muscles,  and  other  organs  of  the  body.  We 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        207 

have  here  not  a  case  of  one-sided  ability,  but  a  mind 
of  very  superior  general  ability  focussed  upon  a  special 
subject. 

No.  8.  Boy:  P.  T.  Ordinary  parents  and  dull 
brother. 

Age  11-11;  mental  age  17-7;  I  Q  148;  low-eighth 
grade. 

This  boy  is  specially  interesting  because  of  the  con- 
trast with  his  brother,  who  at  the  age  of  6-10  tests  at 
mental  age  5-8;  I  Q  83.  The  parents  say  the  two  chil- 
dren are  absolutely  unlike,  and  the  verdict  of  the  tests 
agrees  with  this  opinion. 

The  father  is  a  carpenter.  Neither  parent  has  had 
more  than  a  common  school  education,  but  the  mother 
is  somewhat  above  the  average  in  intelligence.  A  dis- 
tant relative  of  the  mother  was  a  high  official  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  a  relative  of  the 
father  was  an  archbishop  of  Scotland. 

Parents'  notes.  P.  shows  unusual  ability  in  all  of 
his  school  work  and  also  in  music.  He  succeeds  in 
everything  he  undertakes.  When  he  was  22  months 
old  he  knew  the  names  of  the  important  buildings  in 
San  Francisco  and  could  point  them  out  on  a  photo- 
graph of  the  city.  Was  never  taught  at  home  beyond 
the  alphabet.  Health  record  good.  Desires  to  be- 
come a  mechanical  engineer.  The  younger  brother 
expects  to  be  a  farmer.  Average  parent  rating  on 
traits,  1.60. 


208    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

One  year  later,  age  13.  Excellent  record  continued 
in  every  respect.  This  time  the  mother  rates  the  child 
1  on  every  trait.  She  is  probably  realizing  more  and 
more  the  contrast  with  the  younger  brother. 

Teacher's  notes.  All-round  ability.  "  A.  is  a  great 
reader  and  a  most  satisfactory  pupil."  Teacher's 
rating  was  1  on  all  but  two  of  the  traits. 

No.  9  and  No.  10.  C.  D.  and  L.  D.  Brother  and 
sister.  Exceptional  children  of  ordinary  parents. 

C.  Age  14-6;  mental  age  19-0;  I  Q  131;  third  year 
high  school. 

L.  Age  10;  mental  age  13-8;  I  Q  137;  high-fifth 
grade. 

C.  made  the  remarkable  vocabulary  score  of  82 
words,  which  equals  that  of  the  average  university 
senior.  He  has  reached  a  stage  of  development  where 
the  Stanford-Binet  falls  short  of  being  an  adequate 
measure. 

A  brother  of  C.  and  L.  is  in  the  seventh  grade  at  the 
age  of  11,  and  a  sister  is  in  the  second  grade  at  the  age 
of  7.  Neither  has  been  tested,  but  both  are  said  to  be 
as  bright  as  C.  and  L. 

In  one  respect  this  is  the  most  interesting  family  of 
children  of  whom  we  have  record.  The  father  is  a 
barber,  the  mother  was  a  tailoress  before  marriage, 
and  not  a  single  known  relative  has  had  more  than  a 
common  school  education  or  intelligence  above  the 
ordinary.  Each  of  the  four  children  belongs  to  a  grade 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         209 

of  superiority  not  encountered  oftener,  on  an  average, 
than  once  among  one  hundred  children. 

Parents'  notes.  C.'s  health  is  perfect  except  for 
myopia  and  slight  headaches.  Entered  second  grade 
at  the  age  of  6  and  shortly  afterwards  skipped  to  third. 
Spends  all  his  spare  time  in  reading.  Learned  the 
alphabet  at  2  years  and  could  read  books  and  news- 
papers at  3.  Special  ability  in  mathematics.  No 
special  instruction,  but  has  been  encouraged. 

L.  is  more  sociable,  talkative,  and  active  than  C. 
Her  health  is  very  good  and  her  school  work  gives  her 
no  trouble.  She  is  less  studious  than  C.  but  gave  in 
childhood  similar  indications  of  superiority. 

Teacher's  notes.  The  teacher  says  regarding  C.'s 
high  standing  in  class,  "I  would  cite  as  evidence  of 
unusual  talent  his  answers  to  questions  proposed  dur- 
ing the  lesson,  which  are  almost  invariably  in  a  sin- 
gle short  sentence  covering  completely  the  ground." 
Social  adaptability  inferior.  Is  pensive,  very  shy, 
and  retiring  in  a  crowd  of  boys.  Remarkable  power 
of  concentration. 

L.  is  described  by  her  teacher  as  exceptionally  quick 
and  accurate  in  her  work  and  alert  to  everything. 

Wo.ll.  Boy:B.F.1  Remarkable  all-round  ability, 
which  was  greatly  underestimated  by  the  parents. 

1  See  brief  description  of  B.  F.  at  the  age  of  8  years,  in  Terman, 
Lewis  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  (Hough ton  Mifflin  Co., 
1916),  p.  102.  At  that  time  B.  F.  was  the  brightest  child  in  the 
Stanford  records. 


210    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

First  test:  age  7-8;  mental  age  12-4;  I  Q  161;  high- 
third  grade.  Vocabulary  score  in  this  test  was  40 
(median  for  12  years).  The  induction  test  in  year 
14  and  the  box  test  in  Average  Adult  were  both 
passed. 

Second  test:  age  9-4;  mental  age  15-7;  I  Q  167;  low- 
sixth  grade.  In  the  second  test  the  vocabulary  score 
was  56.  The  fables,  box  and  code  tests  of  Average 
Adult,  and  the  paper-cutting  test  and  abstract  pas- 
sages of  Superior  Adult  were  passed. 

B/s  father  is  an  able  minister,  and  the  mother  is  a 
woman  of  exceptional  intellect  and  personal  qualities. 
The  following  statement  by  the  parents  illustrate  how 
the  superior  child  in  a  superior  home  is  likely  to  be 
underrated  because  of  the  high  standard  by  which  he 
is  judged:  "His  development  has  seemed  to  us  quite 
normal  and  even.  We  had  not  thought  of  him  as 
much  above  the  average  in  intelligence."  (Mother.) 
"Really  Mrs.  F.  and  I  think  that  some  mistake  has 
probably  been  made  in  the  observations  upon  which 
your  rating  is  based.  While  B.  is  an  alert,  good  and 
thoroughly  satisfactory  boy,  we  have  never  thought 
of  him  as  considerably  above  the  average  in  mentality. 
We  have  tried  to  be  good  parents  to  him,  provoking 
inquiry,  answering  questions  and  giving  him  oppor- 
tunity for  a  variety  of  experiences  that  would  furnish 
raw  material  for  his  ideas."  (Father.) 

Nevertheless,  B.  has  a  grade  of  intelligence  which  is 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        211 

probably  not  equaled  by  more  than  one  child  in  five 
thousand. 

Parents9  notes.  B.  has  never  been  seriously  ill,  but 
there  is  a  slight  tendency  to  stutter  when  he  is  excited. 
Learned  to  read  at  5.  At  7  read  Hiawatha  and  com- 
mitted 150  lines  of  the  poem  to  memory.  Does  no 
home  study  and  reads  only  about  a  half  hour  per  day. 
Spends  hours  after  school  in  outdoor  play,  marbles, 
football,  and  base  ball;  also  practices  on  the  piano. 
Has  an  unusual  fund  of  information  in  history  and 
current  events.  Catches  impressions  easily.  Many 
interests.  Allowed  to  go  his  own  pace  in  school,  and 
has  had  no  formal  instruction  in  the  home.  Wants 
to  go  through  college  and  become  a  minister.  Takes 
his  place  well  among  other  children  without  being  a 
leader. 

Two  years  later,  age  11.  The  mother  writes  that 
notwithstanding  a  change  of  schools  the  teacher  con- 
siders B.  ready  for  the  eighth  grade.  School  work 
easier  than  ever.  Shows  a  growing  interest  in  world 
problems.  Average  parent  rating  on  traits  at  this 
time,  1.75. 

Teacher's  notes.  Unusual  ability  in  reasoning  and 
an  exceptional  fund  of  general  information.  Also 
considerable  ability  in  music.  In  two  and  a  half  years 
has  almost  completed  six  grades.  Remarkably  attrac- 
tive and  alert.  Not  particularly  handsome,  rather 
delicate  in  appearance,  but  vigorous  in  his  play  and 
a  favorite  with  the  children  who  congregate  in  his 


212    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

yard.  Rated  1  by  the  teacher  on  every  one  of  the 
twenty  traits,  the  only  one  of  our  superior  children 
with  whom  this  occurs. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  test  B.  was  above  12  years  in 
mentality,  but  was  in  the  high-third  grade.  On  the 
showing  made  in  the  test  we  urged  the  father  to  try 
to  secure  an  extra  promotion.  This  was  done,  and  the 
results  fully  justified  the  recommendation.  In  all, 
B.  has  skipped  four  half -grades  and  still  continues  to 
secure  perfect  marks. 

No.  12.  Boy:  L.  M.  Brother  of  No.  13.  Under- 
estimated by  parents.  Morally  superior. 

Age  6-8J;  mental  age  9-5;  I  Q  140;  first  grade. 
Age  9-6;  mental  age  15-1;  I  Q  159;  fifth  grade. 

At  9-6  L.  passed  the  code  and  box  tests  of  Average 
Adult;  also  repeated  8  digits  and  did  the  ingenuity 
problem  in  Superior  Adult. 

There  are  five  children  in  this  family,  all  above 
average.  One  earned  "  A  "  marks  all  through  high 
school  and  graduated  at  17,  winning  a  college  scholar- 
ship. Father  a  minister  of  exceptional  ability. 

Parents9  notes.  Average  parent  rating  on  traits, 
3.21.  Health  good.  First  showed  unusual  ability  in 
arithmetic  at  the  age  of  3  years.  Has  been  allowed 
to  go  his  own  pace,  except  as  older  sister  taught  him 
in  playing  school.  L.  has  a  way  of  making  for  what 
he  wants  regardless  of  obstacles. 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         213 

One  year  later,  age  10 J.  Not  robust;  out  of  school 
because  of  unsatisfactory  general  health.  "  Brain  and 
ambition  out  of  proportion  to  strength,  but  is  improv- 
ing. His  interests  take  in  the  whole  world;  —  prohi- 
bition, Red  Cross,  Y.M.C.A.,  Boy  Scouts,  Athletics. 
Gives  morality  talks  to  any  one  he  thinks  in  need  of 
them.  Walks  miles  distributing  literature  for  all  the 
'drives.'" 

Has  a  circulating  library  of  about  fifty  volumes  in 
constant  use  among  the  neighbor  children,  for  which 
he  keeps  the  accounts  carefully  and  systematically. 
Remarkable  in  his  choice  of  books;  "has  never  even 
by  chance  brought  home  from  the  public  library  an 
undesirable  book."  School  marks  continue  good. 
School  work  rather  laborious,  as  he  has  little  patience 
with  details  and  makes  careless  mistakes.  Average 
rating  on  traits  now,  £.£0,  considerably  higher  than 
before. 

Teacher's  notes.  All-round  ability.  Without  self- 
consciousness  and  speaks  well  before  the  class. 

No.  13.  Girl:  C.  M.  Sister  of  No.  12.  Early  in- 
dications of  superior  ability. 

Age  7-6;  mental  age  11-10;  I  Q  158;  fifth  grade. 
Passed  the  box  test  in  Average  Adult. 

Parents9  notes.  Average  parent  rating  1.95.  Health 
perfect.  Has  abnormal  physical  strength.  "Before 
we  knew  it,  soon  after  her  sixth  birthday,  she  read  and 


214    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

enjoyed  the  Courtship  of  Miles  Standisk,  saying  she 
thought  it  was  *  such  beautiful  language.'  "  About 
the  same  time  she  wrote  little  two-page  stories.  In- 
telligence was  also  evident  in  clearness  of  answers  in 
conversation,  fine  reasoning  powers  and  right  conclu- 
sions. Superiority  noted  at  4  years.  Allowed  to  go 
her  own  pace.  No  home  instruction  except  what  she 
received  from  a  very  bright  older  sister  who  played 
school  and  gave  her  good  instruction  in  drawing, 
reading,  and  numbers.  Reads  good  poetry,  the  Bi- 
ble, and  classics,  all  of  which  she  thoroughly  under- 
stands and  enjoys. 

One  year  later,  age  83.  Robust  health.  Highest 
school  marks.  Leadership  marked.  Average  rating 
now,  1.50. 

No.  14.  Boy:  J.  C.  A  case  of  exceptional  all- 
round  mental  precocity.  A  leader. 

Age  11-4;  mental  age  17-9;  I  Q  156;  seventh  grade. 

Although  only  a  little  more  than  11  years  old,  J.'s 
vocabulary  score  was  75.  He  passed  all  but  the  paper- 
cutting  and  ingenuity  tests  in  the  Superior  Adult 
group.  As  a  result  of  the  test  he  was  promoted  to  the 
eighth  grade. 

Mother's  notes.  J.  could  talk  before  he  was  a  year 
old,  could  stand  at  seven  months  and  run  at  ten 
months.  He  read  Ivanhoe  at  the  age  of  7.  "Has 
seemed  always  to  read  and  study.  Has  always  been 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         215 

a  big  boy  to  me."  Of  quiet  disposition,  without  a 
touch  of  vanity.  Has  the  dictionary  habit,  and  is  an 
omnivorous  reader.  Spends  much  time  with  encyclo- 
paedias. Excellent  health.  Has  become  interested 
in  athletics  and  other  boyish  matters.  Masters  his 
school  work  with  apparent  ease.  Adapts  himself  to 
any  person  or  crowd.  Leads  in  educational  games 
and  is  often  chosen  as  leader.  Even  temper,  sympa- 
thetic, considerate,  generous,  and  kind  hearted.  Ex- 
pects to  go  to  college  and  take  up  scientific  agriculture. 
Average  parent  rating  1.65. 

No.  15.  Boy:  G.  G.  Illustrating  all-round  superi- 
ority and  marked  precocity. 

Age  12-0;  mental  age  16-8;  I  Q  139;  eighth  grade. 

Teacher's  notes.  "  A  problem  is  never  given  that  G. 
will  not  try.  He  always  wants  to  know  why,  and  will 
stick  to  his  view  until  it  is  proved  incorrect."  Has 
ambition  to  succeed  and  be  the  first  in  his  class.  Sense 
of  humor  far  beyond  his  years.  Has  a  splendid  com- 
mand of  language.  His  ability  is  general.  Has  some 
trouble  getting  on  with  the  large  boys  because  he  still 
has  childish  ideas  about  some  things;  but  takes  things 
good  naturedly  and  goes  right  on.  "He  is  one  of  the 
best  all-round  superior  children  I  have  ever  had  in 
eighteen  years  of  experience  as  a  teacher."  Average 
teacher  rating  on  traits,  2.10. 

Parents'   notes.      Health  good;   sleeps  ten  hours. 


216    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Reads  Shakespeare,  the  Book  of  Knowledge,  and  na- 
ture books.  Some  musical  ability.  Specially  fond 
of  arithmetic  and  history.  Memory  exceptionally 
good.  "  At  3  years  he  loved  to  be  read  to,  and  could 
quote  many  nursery  rhymes.  At  4  he  quoted  several 
long  stories  word  for  word.  At  5  he  could  print  the 
alphabet,  and  insisted  on  being  told  how  to  spell 
words."  No  formal  instruction  before  going  to  school. 
Since  then  he  has  gone  his  own  pace.  His  questions 
have  been  answered  clearly,  and  current  events  have 
been  discussed  in  his  presence.  Is  much  interested  in 
machinery.  Understands  fairly  well  motor-car  con- 
struction. 

One  year  later,  age  13.  Did  not  attend  school  last 
year  because  of  an  enlarged  cervical  gland  which 
necessitated  an  operation.  Health  is  good  now. 
Greater  interest  in  outside  activities  and  athletics. 
Plays  piano  and  cornet.  Does  his  school  work  with 
ease.  School  adaptability  improved.  Is  less  nervous 
than  formerly.  Average  parent  rating,  2.10. 

No.  16.  Girl:  C.  G.  Illustrating  marked  leader- 
ship and  social  adaptability. 

Age  13-9;  mental  age  19-1;  I  Q  139;  fourth  year 
of  high  school. 

C.  lives  in  a  city  in  the  northern  part  of  California. 
When  we  visited  there  and  inquired  for  the  bright- 
est pupil  in  the  city  schools,  the  superintendent  and 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         217 

teachers  mentioned  C.  without  hesitation.  Arrange- 
ments were  made  with  the  mother  for  testing  her  the 
following  day.  On  the  next  day,  however,  C.  had 
come  down  with  an  attack  of  measles  and  had  a  high 
fever.  Notwithstanding  this  she  wanted  to  go  on  with 
the  test,  which  was  given,  with  the  result  noted  above. 
All  the  tests  in  the  Stanford-Binet  were  passed  with 
one  exception,  the  box  test  in  Average  Adult. 

C.  taught  herself  to  read  when  she  was  31  months 
old.  She  started  to  school  at  the  age  of  6,  and  in 
seven  and  a  half  years  had  completed  the  work  of 
twelve  grades.  Throughout  she  has  led  her  classes. 
She  is  also  a  leader  in  all  kinds  of  school  activities,  such 
as  dramatics  and  class  activities.  She  is  a  favorite 
both  with  fellow  pupils  and  teachers.  Physically  she 
is  more  than  ordinarily  mature  for  her  age.  Her 
health  has  always  been  perfect.  All  her  extra  promo^ 
tions  have  been  given  on  the  initiative  of  her  teachers, 
the  parents  having  always  urged  them  to  hold  her 
back.  Expects  to  be  a  lawyer. 

C.'s  sister  graduated  from  university  at  21  and  was 
president  of  the  student  body.  Later  did  post-gradu- 
ate work.  Another  sister  of  11  \  years  is  in  the  low- 
eighth  grade.  A  brother  graduated  from  university 
at  20,  and  at  24  is  holding  a  responsible  business 
position.  It  is  doubtless  this  high  standard  of 
ability  in  the  home  which  accounts  for  the  average 
parent  rating  on  traits  of  2.45,  or  only  a  little  above 
"  average." 


218    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

No.  17.  Girl;  K.  C.  Exceptional  personal  charm. 
Indications  of  musical  ability.  A  social  favorite. 

Age  3-2;  mental  age  4-8;  I  Q  144;  not  in  school. 
Age  5-2;  mental  age  7-4;  I  Q  142;  not  in  school. 
Age  6-4;  mental  age  8-10;  I  Q  140;  first  grade. 

At  the  age  of  5  K.  counted  backward  from  20  to  1, 
gave  definitions  superior  to  use,  and  arranged  the  five 
weights.  This  test  was  given  as  a  demonstration  test 
before  a  dozen  university  students.  K.  liked  the  test 
so  well  that  when  it  was  over  she  did  not  want  to  leave. 

One  of  the  most  charming  little  girls  we  have  ever 
known.  Absolutely  unspoiled  and  lacking  in  any 
appearance  of  self-consciousness.  She  sang  beauti- 
fully at  the  age  of  3.  Learned  to  name  the  colors,  the 
days  of  the  week  and  the  months  of  the  year  on  her 
own  initiative  and  simply  by  asking  questions. 

Her  father  is  a  college  professor.  Both  father  and 
mother  have  several  relatives  of  superior  ability. 

Parents'  notes.  Nothing  unusual  in  early  child- 
hood except  that  her  development  has  been  some- 
what rapid.  She  spoke  a  few  words  at  ten  months. 
Play  life  and  social  relations  perfectly  normal.  A 
favorite  and  takes  the  lead  in  play.  Exceptional 
musical  ability  and  interest  in  colors.  Alive  to  every- 
thing around  her.  Seems  to  want  to  know  everything 
she  hears  talked  about.  Allowed  to  go  her  own  pace, 
but  information  she  asks  for  is  never  withheld.  No 
formal  instruction.  Average  parent  rating,  2.00. 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        219 

A  year  later  K.'s  health  remains  perfect,  her  inter- 
ests are  broadening  and  she  is  developing  marked 
traits  of  leadership.  Average  parent  rating  at  this 
time,  1.95. 

No.  18.  Boy.S.D.  Splendid  heredity.  All-round 
ability  and  exceptional  courage. 

Age  7-5;  mental  age  10-10;  I  Q  146;  third  grade. 
Second  test:  age  10-0;  mental  age  15-1;  I  Q  151; 
seventh  grade. 

The  great-grandfather  of  S.  was  a  chum  of  Abraham 
Lincoln  and  a  candidate  for  United  States  Senator 
when  he  died,  at  the  age  of  35.  The  brother  of  this 
relative  was  a  noted  attorney.  Father  of  S.  is  also 
an  attorney,  the  mother  a  high-school  teacher.  A 
cousin  on  the  mother's  side  is  in  the  third  year  of  high 
school  at  the  age  of  13  years.  Several  uncles  of  the 
mother  were  political  leaders  in  the  early  history  of 
Kentucky. 

Teacher's  notes.  "  I  cannot  say  that  S.  has  unusual 
talent  of  any  special  kind;  he  simply  has  a  big  mind  in 
a  big  body.  Ability  is  all-round  superior."  Average 
teacher  rating  on  traits,  1.5,  one  of  the  highest  ratings 
we  have  found. 

Parents9  notes.  Health  has  always  been  perfect. 
Spoke  a  few  words  at  6  months.  Entered  the  third 
grade  at  7  years,  and  in  two  and  a  half  years  covered 
four  and  a  half  grades.  Learned  to  read  at  the  age 


220    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

of  5.  Does  no  regular  study  at  home,  but  reads  about 
half  an  hour  each  evening.  Holidays  spent  in  play, 
chores,  fishing,  and  swimming.  No  formal  instruction 
in  childhood,  but  has  been  encouraged  to  stand  at  the 
head  of  his  class.  Average  parent  rating  on  traits, 
1.85. 

One  year  later,  age  11-3.  In  the  eighth  grade,  doing 
excellent  work.  Health  good  and  development  satis- 
factory in  every  way.  Average  parent  rating  at  this 
tune,  2.10.  In  rating  courage  the  mother  made  the 
following  remark:  "  All  I  can  say  about  this  is  that  S. 
when  only  10  years  old  entered  a  burning  house  and 
brought  out  a  baby,  then  reentered  and  dragged  out  a 
wooden  chest,  and  was  ready  to  enter  again  when  I 
had  to  hold  him  outside  by  force  while  the  roof  fell 


No.  19.  Boy:  R.  V.  Early  evidence  of  superiority. 
Natural  interest  in  teaching. 

Age  11-7;  mental  age  16-6;  I  Q  142;  high-seventh 
grade. 

Father  a  carpenter,  with  only  a  common  school 
education.  The  mother  a  teacher  before  marriage. 
There  are  seven  children,  all  of  whom  are  superior. 

Parents9  notes.  Health  good  except  for  an  attack  of 
acute  rheumatism  when  he  was  6  years  old.  Taught 
himself  to  read  with  the  aid  of  a  telephone  book  and 
calendar.  Loves  to  teach.  Has  prepared  several 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN         221 

children  in  the  neighborhood  for  school.  Superiority 
first  evident  at  the  age  of  4.  No  instruction  in  child- 
hood. "  We  wanted  him  to  be  outdoors  and  build  up 
a  good  constitution."  R.  is  quite  up  to  the  times  in 
politics  and  war.  Joins  in  the  discussions  on  these 
topics.  Signed  the  prohibition  pledge  at  Sunday 
School  and  will  not  eat  anything  that  has  brandy  in 
it.  Ambition  to  write  books.  Average  parent  rating 
on  traits,  1.90. 

One  year  later,  age  12?.  Health  good.  School  work 
very  good.  Leads  among  the  boys  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Rather  impatient  and  quick  to  anger,  but  soon 
recovers  his  poise.  Parent  rating  at  this  time,  2.00. 

Teacher.    Average  rating  on  traits,  1.59. 

No.  20.  Boy:  F.  H.  One  of  our  brightest  chil- 
dren. All-round  ability  and  very  exceptional  vocab- 
ulary. 

Age  10-5;  mental  age  17-11;  I  Q  172;  high-fifth 
grade. 

Vocabulary  score  was  78  (14,000  words).  This  is 
almost  equal  to  that  of  the  average  college  student. 
Every  test  was  passed  in  year  14,  four  out  of  the  six  in 
Average  Adult,  and  five  out  of  the  six  in  Superior 
Adult.  Every  fable  was  perfectly  interpreted. 

Father  a  physician.  Mother  had  only  a  common 
school  education.  Several  superior  relatives,  a  brother 
testing  at  137. 


222    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Parents'  notes.  Entered  the  first  grade  at  5.  Abil- 
ity general.  Superiority  first  evidenced  at  the  age  of  6 
by  his  unusual  interest  in  school  work  and  by  his  orig- 
inal thinking.  Has  never  been  specially  stimulated. 
Allowed  to  go  his  own  pace  "because  that  was  fast 
enough."  Average  rating  by  parents,  1.75. 

The  teacher  describes  F.  as  having  wonderful  all- 
round  ability  and  gives  him  an  average  rating  of  1.30. 

No.  21  and  No.  22.  J.  J.  and  B.  J.  Italian  chil- 
dren, brother  and  sister. 

Boy:  J.     Age  9-0;  mental  age  12-7;  I  Q  140. 
Girl:  B.    Age  6-8;  mental  age  10-1;  I  Q  151. 

Here  are  two  Italian  children,  the  only  ones  of  this 
nationality  we  have  discovered  testing  anything  like 
this  high.  Both  are  exceptionally  attractive,  polished 
yet  natural  in  manners,  beautiful  and  unspoiled.  J.  is 
described  as  more  studiously  inclined  than  B.  and  as 
being  also  more  sensitive.  Mother  was  inclined  to 
believe  the  boy  the  brighter  of  the  two,  but  the  test 
places  the  girl  slightly  above.  Both  parents  are  well 
educated. 

Three  of  the  four  grandparents  are  described  in  such 
terms  as  "extremely  bright,"  "keen  reader,"  "inter- 
ested in  history  and  international  affairs,"  etc.  The 
paternal  grandfather  was  an  "  able  linguist  and  scien- 
tist," a  member  of  the  Royal  Geographic  Society,  and 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        223 

a  talented  singer.  Many  relatives  of  culture  and 
learning  on  both  sides. 

J.  did  not  learn  to  talk  until  he  was  2  years  old.  He 
is  somewhat  emotional,  but  general  health  is  good. 
Sleeps  11 J  hours.  Learned  to  read  at  the  age  of  5 
years.  At  this  age  about  one  hour  daily  was  given  to 
instruction  in  reading  and  writing.  "  We  never  forced 
him,  but  always  let  him  know  there  is  a  premium  on 
fine  scholarship/*  At  the  age  of  6  was  tutored  about 
2j  hours  daily.  Has  never  attended  school.  Specially 
talented  in  music.  Plays  well  and  has  a  keen  sense  of 
harmony. 

B.  learned  to  read  at  the  age  of  5J,  and  was  able  to 
read  the  fourth  reader  at  the  age  of  6-2.  "Superiority 
shown  in  her  keen  observation  and  in  her  understand- 
ing of  human  character.  This  was  noticeable  at  the 
age  of  4,  or  even  younger."  Like  her  brother,  has 
been  allowed  to  go  her  own  pace. 

No.  23.  Girl:  M.  S.  A  typical  illustration  of  the 
ease  with  which  superior  children  learn  without  in- 
struction. 

Age  8-3;  mental  age  12-1;  I  Q  146;  fifth  grade. 

Passed  the  fable  test  and  repeated  six  digits  back- 
wards in  Average  Adult. 

Mother's  notes.  M.  learned  to  read  without  any  in- 
struction at  the  age  of  3  years.  Read  signs  and  adver- 
tisements and  names  on  food  packages  which  were 
frequently  seen  about  the  house.  At  6  years  read  bet- 


224    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

ter  and  more  naturally  than  since  listening  to  other 
children  at  school.  Has  dramatic  ability.  Shows  re- 
markable grasp  of  all  instruction  and  is  good  in  execu- 
tion. Makes  progress  two  or  three  times  as  rapidly  as 
ordinary  children.  "  M.  has  just  *  growed  up '  as  I  have 
had  continual  illness  in  the  home  and  have  been  un- 
able to  give  her  the  attention  she  should  have  had.  I 
held  her  back  from  skipping  the  fifth  grade  because 
I  felt  that  physical  perfection  was  the  first  consid- 
eration." Health  always  good.  Wishes  to  become 
a  teacher  or  to  take  up  dramatics.  Mother  believes 
she  could  also  succeed  in  business. 

Later,  age  9j,  in  sixth  grade.  Health  and  school 
work  A-l.  "A  born  leader,  but  a  little  too  dogmatic 
and  positive  to  be  socially  popular." 

No.  24.  Girl:  M.  S.  General  ability,  combined 
with  talent  in  art.  Exceptional  heredity. 

Age  9-1;  mental  age  12-10;  I  Q  141;  low-fifth  grade. 

Passed  the  fable  test  in  Average  Adult,  and  the 
eight  digits  in  Superior  Adult. 

One  grandfather  a  banker,  the  other  a  railway  offi- 
cial; both  educated,  intelligent  men.  Both  grand- 
mothers described  as  well  educated  and  very  keen.  On 
the  mother's  side  James  McNeill  Whistler,  the  noted 
artist,  was  a  cousin  of  the  child's  grandfather.  Several 
other  relatives  on  this  side  had  exceptional  mental 
ability  and  physical  endowment.  On  the  father's  side, 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        225 

an  uncle  gifted  as  a  sculptor  and  painter.  Several  very 
bright  cousins. 

Parents'  notes.  Parents  rated  M.  1  on  every  trait 
except  courage  and  intellectual  modesty,  which  they 
rated  2.  Physical  condition  has  always  been  perfect. 
Observant,  excellent  memory,  craving  for  knowledge. 
"  Has  great  enthusiasm  for  beautiful  scenery,  sunsets, 
and  other  beauties  of  nature."  Is  fond  of  animals.  Su- 
periority noted  at  the  age  of  4.  Encouraged  to  go 
ahead  in  school  but  not  forced.  Has  been  praised  for 
good  report  cards.  No  formal  instruction  whatever  at 
home.  Ambitious  in  everything  she  attempts.  Wants 
to  be  a  teacher. 

One  year  later,  age  10-2.  The  mother  writes: 
"  Health  good.  She  awakens  more  and  more  to  beauty, 
takes  great  pride  in  her  work,  and  shows  great  love  for 
reading.  All  of  her  work  a  pleasure  except  arithmetic 
(I  wish  arithmetic  were  a  little  more  practical) .  Makes 
friends  easily  and  is  very  companionable  with  older 
children.  Wants  to  draw  and  loves  scenery  and  pic- 
tures. Her  best  chum  is  a  school  girl  of  fifteen  years." 
Average  parent  rating  at  this  time,  1.60. 

Teacher's  notes.  Unusual  ability  to  carry  a  melody 
in  two-part  singing.  Reads  music  well.  Exception- 
ally good  in  penmanship.  Superiority  general.  The 
teacher  rated  all  the  traits  1  except  general  health. 

No.  25.  Boy:  A.  W.  Brother  of  No.  26.  Underes- 
timated by  teacher  and  dislikes  school.  Very  sensitive. 


226    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Age  13-1;  mental  age  18-6;  I  Q  141;  low-seventh 
grade. 

A.'s  vocabulary  score  was  84,  which  is  equal  to  that 
of  the  average  Stanford  University  senior.  Missed 
only  two  tests  in  the  scale,  the  ingenuity  test  and  re- 
peating seven  digits  backwards. 

Both  A.  and  his  sister  are  very  superior  but  A.  seems 
to  be  more  original  and  better  informed.  Until  a  few 
months  before  the  test  A.  had  always  attended  a  coun- 
try school.  His  grades  in  school  are  good,  but  not  ex- 
ceptionally superior.  He  has  no  hesitation  hi  saying 
that  he  does  not  particularly  like  school.  The  teacher 
rated  him  3  ("average  ")  on  all  but  two  of  the  twenty 
traits.  She  sees  nothing  exceptional  in  this  boy's  men- 
tality, although  he  is  better  informed  and  has  a  larger 
command  of  language  than  the  average  teacher. 
One  wonders  whether  the  teacher's  misunderstanding 
has  anything  to  do  with  the  boy's  dislike  of  school. 

Parents9  notes.  Health  good  except  for  chorea, 
which  has  now  practically  disappeared.  As  a  small 
child  he  was  very  timid,  and  he  is  still  sensitive.  Re- 
markable memory,  which  first  showed  itself  at  the  age 
of  4,  when  he  learned  his  story  books  by  heart.  At 
that  age  he  also  learned  most  of  Poe's  The  Bells.  Has 
always  used  big  words  correctly.  Learned  to  read  at 
the  age  of  6j.  In  three  or  four  months  he  could  read 
all  of  Riley's  child  rhymes.  "  From  the  time  when  he 
was  a  young  child  A.  has  seemed  to  have  understand- 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        227 

ing  and  knowledge  in  almost  everything  beyond  his 
years."  Draws  exceptionally  well  and  has  mechanical 
ability.  "At  four  years  could  repeat  verbatim  pages 
and  pages  of  books  which  were  read  to  him."  Allowed 
to  go  his  own  pace  because  of  his  tendency  to  nervous- 
ness. The  only  instruction  has  been  in  the  form  of 
answering  innumerable  questions.  Several  relatives 
of  very  superior  ability.  Average  parent  rating  on 
traits,  2.05. 

Later,  age  14-2.  Health  good,  school  marks  im- 
proved; school  work  easier;  less  nervous. 

No.  26.    Girl :  E.  W.    Sister  of  No.  25. 

Age  11-5;  mental  age  16-11;  I  Q  148;  high-seventh 
grade. 

All  the  tests  in  Average  Adult  passed  except  the 
code;  eight  digits  direct  order,  and  seven  digits  re- 
versed passed  in  Superior  Adult. 

Parents'  notes.  Age  of  talking,  20  months.  Health 
excellent.  Has  always  been  intellectually  alert  beyond 
her  years.  Ambitious  to  excel.  Is  very  practical. 
Has  always  had  an  excellent  memory  and  early  learned 
nursery  rhymes  and  jingles.  Superiority  first  noticed 
at  the  age  of  4.  Is  musical.  Allowed  to  go  her  own 
pace,  "  as  she  seems  inclined  to  go  quite  as  fast  as  is 
good  for  her."  No  formal  instruction  at  home.  De- 
sires to  become  a  teacher. 


228    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

No.  27.     Boy:  R.  K.     Exceptional  heredity. 

Age  8-9;  mental  age  12-4;  I  Q  141;  fourth  grade. 
Age  11^4;  mental  age  16-8;  I Q  147 ;  high-seventh 
grade. 

Father  a  mining  engineer,  mother  a  teacher.  Pa- 
ternal grandfather  a  teacher  of  superior  ability.  One 
uncle  a  doctor  of  divinity  and  "  a  bright  scholar."  One 
cousin  is  a  "  mechanical  engineer  of  exceptional  abil- 
ity." Another  cousin,  a  post-graduate  of  Harvard,  is 
said  to  be  one  of  the  best  mathematicians  that  Harv- 
ard has  had  in  years.  Relatives  farther  back  on  this 
side  were  Roger  Williams  and  Colonel  Crawford. 

Maternal  grandfather  a  teacher  and  lawyer  of  abil- 
ity; maternal  grandmother  a  teacher  and  "  a  great 
student  up  to  the  age  of  eighty  years."  Two  uncles 
and  one  aunt  on  this  side  had  exceptional  mental 
ability.  One  cousin  is  an  artist  of  ability,  and  an- 
other a  talented  singer.  Washington  Irving  was  a 
cousin  of  the  great  grandfather.  Another  noted  rel- 
ative farther  back  was  an  earl  of  Kilnockie. 

Parents9  notes.  R.  is  somewhat  nervous;  otherwise 
health  is  perfect.  Nothing  unusual  in  early  life.  En- 
tered the  second  grade  at  6  years,  and  later  skipped 
half  of  the  fourth  and  half  of  the  sixth.  Never  urged 
on.  Best  work  is  in  English  and  music.  In  his  com- 
positions shows  unusual  appreciation  of  language.  Is 
ambitious  to  write.  Average  parent  rating  on  traits, 
1.50. 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        229 

One  year  later,  age  12-6.  "  R.  is  finishing  the  eighth 
grade  with  excellent  marks.  Work  very  easy  for  him. 
Health  good."  Average  parent  rating  at  this  time, 
1.70. 

No.  28.  Boy:  J.  P.  Underestimated  by  parents. 
An  exceptionally  logical  mind. 

Age  8-1;  mental  age  10-10;  I  Q  134;  third  grade. 
Age  9-2;  mental  age  13-0;  I  Q  141;  fifth  grade. 
Age  11-4;  mental  age  15-6;  I  Q  137;  seventh  grade. 

Parents9  notes.  The  father,  a  college  professor,  was 
slow  to  believe  that  J.  was  much  above  the  average 
child  in  ability.  He  has  no  brothers  or  sisters,  and  the 
parents  had  no  general  standard  by  which  to  judge 
him.  Average  parent  rating,  2.44.  Nothing  unusual 
in  early  life,  health,  or  training.  Was  taught  to  read 
at  the  age  of  6,  but  has  had  no  formal  instruction. 

Two  years  later,  age  11.  Health  good.  Tonsils 
recently  removed.  School  work  done  without  effort. 
Somewhat  nervous  and  sensitive.  Average  parent  rat- 
ing at  this  time,  2.20,  or  somewhat  higher  than  before. 

Teacher's  notes.  "J.  can  stagger  you  with  astro- 
nomical facts.  Delights  in  historical  stories.  Is  not 
contented  with  statements  made  in  the  text,  but  wants 
detailed  information.  Questions  everything;  loves 
an  argument  and  debates  with  zeal  and  ability.  Was 
wildly  happy  when  appointed  to  lead  a  debate.  Has 
a  code  and  loves  secrets.  His  mind  is  alert  to  every 


230    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

impression.  His  hands  are  not  responsive;  he  dis- 
likes to  write  or  draw,  but  grits  his  teeth  and  does 
average  work  to  avoid  having  to  do  it  over.  Reason- 
ing is  his  strong  point.  He  can  read  any  book  and 
repeat  the  substance  of  it  months  afterwards.  Social 
adaptability  normal,  but  rather  prefers  to  play  alone. 
Does  not  care  for  conventionalities.  Has  an  unusual 
sense  of  justice."  Average  teacher  rating,  2.00. 

No.  29.  Boy:  B.  H.  Very  much  underrated  by 
his  teacher. 

Age  9-7;  mental  age  13-10;  I  Q  144;  low-fifth  grade. 

The  interesting  thing  about  this  child  is  that  the 
teacher  considers  his  ability  "  average,  except  in  lan- 
guage." As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  is  farther  advanced  in 
vocabulary  than  in  his  general  mental  development. 
He  is  under-age  for  his  grade,  and  has  been  rated  by 
the  teacher  in  comparison  with  children  two  and  three 
years  older. 

Fortunate  heredity.  Two  uncles  on  the  mother's  side 
unusually  intelligent;  one  was  a  prominent  lawyer 
when  he  died  at  the  age  of  35,  the  other  entered  high 
school  at  11  and  is  now  editor  of  a  large  city  news- 
paper. A  great-great-uncle  of  the  boy  was  a  doctor 
of  divinity  and  one  of  the  foremost  of  pulpit  orators 
in  the  South.  B.  has  two  brothers  almost  as  bright 
as  himself. 

Parents'  notes.    Health  perfect,  but  sleep  not  very 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        231 

sound.  "  Have  encouraged  him  because  he  is  not  am- 
bitious." Was  given  no  home  instruction  except  for 
about  a  year  when  he  started  to  school.  Average  rat- 
ing on  traits,  2.65. 

One  year  later,  age  10J.  School  work  good,  except 
that  his  penmanship  is  poor  and  his  written  work 
somewhat  untidy.  This  sometimes  lowers  his  grades. 
Improvement  in  social  adaptability.  Average  parent 
rating  at  this  time,  2.45. 

No.  30.  Boy:  L.  G.  Underrated  by  parents.  An 
"  only  "  child.  Marked  precocity. 

Age  8-3;  mental  age  12-2;  I  Q  142;  high-fourth 
grade. 

Passed  the  clock  test  and  the  induction  test  in  14, 
and  in  Average  Adult  repeated  six  digits  backwards. 
Vocabulary  score,  however,  only  25,  which  is  not  more 
than  a  year  above  his  actual  age. 

The  most  interesting  thing  in  the  data  furnished  by 
the  parents  is  the  fact  that  they  rate  the  child  3,  or 
average,  on  eighteen  out  of  twenty  traits.  One  won- 
ders whether  this  is  because  L.  is  an  only  child  and 
there  is  no  standard  of  comparison  in  the  home.  The 
average  teacher  rating  is  2.20. 

Parents9  notes.  Health  good.  Learned  to  read  at  the 
age  of  4.  Above  average  in  power  of  concentration. 
Became  interested  in  books  at  the  age  of  2  years. 
Was  persistent  in  effort  to  understand  meaning  of 


232    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

words  and  characters.  Memorized  and  recited  readily 
at  the  age  of  2  years.  "Have  not  encouraged  him 
to  forge  ahead,  but  have  not  held  him  back.  Little  in- 
struction at  home  beyond  the  teaching  of  sounds  of  let- 
ters. Have  also  tried  to  answer  all  his  questions  and 
to  point  the  way  to  further  investigation.  We  think 
the  child  has  a  tendency  to  read  too  much." 

Wo.  31.  Boy:  C.  M.  Underrated  by  teacher.  Ex- 
ceptional heredity. 

Age  8-6;  mental  age  12-0;  I  Q  141;  high-fourth 
grade. 

This  case  is  mentioned  chiefly  because  of  the  follow- 
ing statement  of  his  teacher:  "  I  would  say,  taking  my 
class  as  a  basis  of  judgment,  that  C.  is  an  average 
child."  The  teacher  admits  that  he  is  doing  excellent 
work  in  the  high-fourth  grade,  also  that  the  class  is  an 
unusually  satisfactory  one.  She  neglects  to  note  that 
the  average  age  in  her  class  is  about  10  years,  while 
that  of  C.  is  only  8£. 

A  sister  of  15  is  almost  as  bright  as  C.  The  father  is 
a  minister,  a  graduate  of  a  theological  seminary.  Ma- 
ternal grandfather  an  army  officer  and  graduate  of 
Oxford.  Maternal  grandmother  very  musical.  Of 
eight  uncles,  two  were  able  lawyers,  and  three  were 
successful  engineers.  The  mother's  grandfather  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  Canadian  statesmen  of 
his  day.  Paternal  grandfather  a  college  graduate; 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN  -    233 

paternal  grandmother  musical.  The  only  uncle  on 
this  side  is  an  expert  chemist,  whose  sons  show  unus- 
ual ability  in  literary  lines.  The  father's  grandfather 
was  one  of  the  leading  spirits  in  the  old  Hudson  Bay 
Company. 

No.  32.  Girl:  M.  C.  Brightest  girl  in  the  Stan- 
ford records.  Superior  family  of  children,  ordinary 
heredity. 

Age  7-10;  mental  age  13-8;  I  Q  174;  fifth  grade. 

This  child,  tested  by  Miss  Blanche  Cummings,  Di- 
rector of  Special  Classes  in  Fresno,  California,  is  the 
brightest  girl  of  whom  we  have  a  record  at  Stanford 
University.  Her  development  will  be  carefully  fol- 
lowed. 

The  father  is  a  jeweler;  the  mother  was  a  milliner 
before  marriage.  Neither  parent  had  more  than  a  com- 
mon school  education.  There  are  three  other  remarka- 
ble children  in  the  family;  a  sister,  age  11,  in  the  sev- 
enth grade;  a  brother,  age  10,  in  the  fifth  grade;  and  a 
brother,  age  6,  in  the  second  grade.  The  last  named 
tested  at  136.  No  other  relatives  of  superior  ability 
are  known  to  the  parents. 

Parents9  notes.  Nothing  unusual  in  health  or  physi- 
cal development  in  early  childhood.  Was  given  no  in- 
struction, but  learned  to  read  by  her  own  efforts  at 
three  years.  Was  permitted  to  use  a  typewriter  and 
with  it  learned  her  letters,  figures,  reading,  and  spell- 


234    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN  T 

ing.  Entered  school  only  a  year  and  a  half  ago,  and 
has  attended  four  different  schools.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  frequent  changes  she  has  made  five  grades  in 
that  time  with  ease.  "  M.  is  more  inclined  to  be  firm 
and  stubborn  than  the  other  children."  Desires  to  be- 
come a  school  teacher.  Average  parent  rating,  2.70. 

No.  33.  Boy:  P.  E.  Early  indications  of  superior 
intelligence.  Apparent  moral  inferiority. 

Age  9-5;  mental  age  13-9;  I  Q  146;  seventh  grade. 
Age  11-3;  mental  age  16-10;  I  Q  150;  first  year  high 
school. 

Both  parents  physicians.  Maternal  grandfather  a 
journalist  and  politician  who  knew  seven  languages. 
A  cousin  on  the  mother's  side  is  said  to  be  as  bright 
as  P.  Mother's  relatives  chiefly  doctors,  lawyers,  and 
ministers. 

Parents9  notes.  P.  knew  his  letters  at  14  months  and 
could  read  at  2  years.  Learned  to  count  at  the  age  of  2 
years.  A  little  later  knew  numbers  as  far  as  the  thou- 
sands and  could  find  numbers  in  the  telephone  book. 
"  When  4  years  and  3  months  old  had  read  a  good  part 
of  the  Bible  and  read  as  well  as  a  boy  of  thirteen."  Al- 
ways insisted  until  told  what  he  wanted  to  know.  En- 
tered the  third  grade  when  he  started  to  school  at  6, 
and  made  nine  grades  in  four  and  a  half  years.  Memo- 
rizes very  rapidly.  Once  became  possessed  of  a  desire  to 
know  the  location  of  every  town,  river,  and  mountain, 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        235 

and  read  the  atlas  through.  Great  collector  of  stamps, 
coins,  foreign  transfers,  etc.  "  I  have  encouraged  him. 
I  consider  a  child  may  just  as  well  be  learning  some- 
thing as  to  fool  away  his  tune.  I  never  made  him 
study.  While  he  was  a  small  child  I  bought  blocks 
with  letters  and  numbers,  maps  to  be  put  together, 
geographical  games,  alphabetical  and  numerical  boards 
and  other  playthings  with  which  to  learn.  Later 
bought  him  a  typewriter,  which  he  soon  learned  to 
use."  Play  life  fairly  normal,  but  made  difficult  by 
the  fact  that  his  classmates  are  much  older  and  larger. 
With  them  he  cannot  be  a  leader,  while  with  younger 
children  he  is  somewhat  domineering  and  bossy. 
Obeys  while  at  school,  but  is  rather  selfish  and  im- 
perious at  home.  The  mother  accounts  for  this  by 
the  fact  that  he  is  an  only  child  and  has  been  allowed 
his  own  way.  Mother's  average  rating  on  traits, 
2.70.  Desires  to  become  a  professor  of  mathematics 
and  English. 

Later,  age  12.  Was  out  of  school  last  term  and 
worked  as  collector  for  a  newspaper,  making  $25  a 
month.  His  vocational  ambition  now  is  to  be  a 
banker.  School  marks  still  excellent,  but  hardly  as 
good  as  before.  "  Still  somewhat  spoiled,  selfish  and 
occasionally  unkind  in  his  criticisms  of  others.  Com- 
pels boys  of  his  size  to  do  as  he  says.  Strong  willed. 
Punishes  himself  rather  than  give  in.  Needs  a  man's 
influence." 

Notes  from  school  principal.    Undoubtedly  great 


236    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

native  intelligence.  Seems  very  learned.  His  ability 
is  certainly  general.  Often  appears  not  to  be  atten- 
tive, but  later  surprises  one  by  being  able  to  repeat 
everything  that  has  been  said.  However,  is  spoiled 
and  vain  and  is  looked  upon  with  a  certain  amount 
of  distrust.  Is  said  to  have  abnormal  sex  inter- 
ests. Once  attacked  a  small  boy  with  a  knife.  Effu- 
sively affectionate  toward  his  teacher,  but  disrespect- 
ful toward  his  parents.  Stubborn  and  willful.  His 
school  conduct,  however,  absolutely  beyond  reproach. 

Teacher's  notes.  Ability  rather  one-sided.  Remark- 
able memory  for  facts,  but  lack  of  judgment.  Has 
few  playmates.  Reputed  to  be  a  bully  among 
younger  children,  although  he  did  not  show  this  at 
school.  Is  tyrannical  toward  his  mother  and  grand- 
mother. Average  rating,  2.89. 

Another  teacher  states:  "His  analysis,  interpreta- 
tion and  memory  for  detail  in  Julius  Ccesar  and  Ivan- 
hoe  have  been  far  above  the  average  of  his  class." 
This  teacher  described  P.'s  ability  as  general  rather 
than  special,  and  gave  an  average  rating  on  traits 
of  1.55. 

There  is  no  question  about  this  boy's  unusual  abil- 
ity. Some  would  perhaps  account  for  it  on  the 
ground  of  his  early  instruction,  but  we  doubt  the  val- 
idity of  such  an  explanation.  The  boy's  social  and 
moral  development  does  not  promise  well,  although 
his  present  objectionable  tendencies  may  be  out- 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       237 

grown  later.     This  is  our  only  superior  who  has  evi- 
denced questionable  moral  traits. 

No.  34.  Boy:  H.  H.  Early  instruction  accompa- 
nied by  marked  indications  of  superior  intelligence. 

Age  6-0;  mental  age  9-4;  I  Q  156. 

Age  8-9;  mental  age  12-10;  I  Q  147;  seventh  grade. 

In  the  second  test,  age  8-9,  the  vocabulary  score 
was  55  (nearly  10,000  words).  This  is  better  than 
the  median  for  14  years. 

Little  is  known  of  the  ancestors  of  H.  except  that 
both  of  his  grandfathers  were  farmers  with  only  a 
common  school  education.  One  distant  relative  was 
a  lawyer  of  national  reputation.  The  father  is  a 
teacher  and  the  mother  a  woman  of  marked  intellec- 
tuality. The  accomplishments  of  H.  were  exploited 
in  a  number  of  newspapers  in  1912-13. 

Parents'  notes.  Was  specially  instructed  in  early 
childhood  by  the  mother,  who  early  began  reading  to 
him  such  literature  as  Hiawatha,  Julius  Caesar,  Bible 
Stories,  etc.  Learned  to  read  at  4.  At  6  was  able  to 
add,  subtract,  multiply  and  divide  numbers  as  far  as 
the  millions,  to  keep  the  family  accounts,  make  up 
bills,  etc.  Mastered  the  number  combinations  by 
playing  dominoes,  and  learned  a  great  deal  of  geog- 
raphy by  playing  post  office  and  writing  addresses  on 
envelopes  which  he  gave  to  his  mother.  Has  accum- 
ulated a  rich  store  of  knowledge  about  nature.  All 


238    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

his  work  is  play  to  him.  Plays  the  piano  quite  re- 
markably for  a  child  of  his  age. 

Later,  age  8.  Not  specially  fond  of  school.  Does 
little  home  study;  reads  only  three  or  four  hours  a 
week.  Spends  most  of  his  time  at  play.  Mother's 
rating  on  traits,  2.10. 

Teacher's  notes.  A  very  lovable  child,  and  below 
average  only  in  leadership  and  initiative.  "  Wonder- 
ful knowledge  of  history.  Is  always  ready  with  sto- 
ries to  illustrate  a  point.  Especially  good  in  oral 
composition.  Large  fund  of  general  information." 
Ability  slightly  one-sided.  Does  not  seem  to  fit  in 
with  the  play  life  of  his  classmates.  Reads  a  great 
deal,  including  Dickcns's  novels,  Shakespeare  stories 
and  child  verses.  Rather  restless.  "  Exceptionally 
poor  in  writing  and  other  handwork,  but  amazes  one 
with  his  knowledge  of  historical  events."  Average 
rating  on  traits,  1.95. 

Later,  age  9-10.  Described  by  the  succeeding 
teacher  as  in  good  health,  growing  very  rapidly  and 
more  interested  in  play  and  companions.  Marks 
still  high.  Improvement  now  in  social  adaptability. 
Average  rating  on  traits  at  this  time,  2.10.  "  When 
he  came  to  us  a  little  over  a  year  ago  he  was  ex- 
tremely restless  and  timid;  spoke  in  very  low  tones, 
flushed  easily,  and  never  volunteered  remarks.  Re- 
cently he  has  relaxed,  plays  ball,  worships  the  big 
boys,  and  has  sprouted  physically.  With  this  has 
come  a  sudden  interest  in  assigned  tasks  which  seems 
very  promising  for  the  future." 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       239 

No.  35.  Girl:  E.  W.  Ill-health.  All-round  abil- 
ity. Exceptional  heredity. 

Age  14-2;  mental  age  19;  I  Q  134;  high-seventh 
grade. 

E.  is  in  the  grade  corresponding  to  chronological 
age.  However,  she  was  out  for  two  years  at  one  time 
and  has  missed  at  other  times  on  account  of  illness. 
Although  she  has  attended  school  only  intermittently 
for  five  years,  in  this  time  she  has  completed  seven 
grades.  Considering  her  health,  it  is  perhaps  best  that 
she  has  not  been  promoted  more  rapidly. 

The  teacher  says :  "  No  matter  what  E.  has  to  do  it  is 
always  well  done.  She  has  a  wonderful  power  of  con- 
centration, a  keen  sense  of  humor,  and  never  gives  up 
until  the  battle  is  won.  Her  examination  papers  are  a 
wonder  to  her  teachers.  They  are  always  to  the  point 
and  definite.  E.  has  decidedly  all-round  ability." 
The  teacher  rated  her  1  on  every  trait  except  general 
health. 

Parents'  notes.  A  good  deal  of  ill-health  from  three  to 
ten  years.  Somewhat  nervous  and  irritable  when  fa- 
tigued. "Reads  as  many  hours  as  we  allow."  Has 
spent  many  happy  hours  delving  into  children's  ency- 
clopedias. Never  had  any  formal  instruction  at  home. 
One  sister  and  one  brother  of  little  if  any  more  than 
average  ability.  "  E.  has  always  been  first  to  grasp  the 
meaning  of  a  game,  puzzle,  or  any  subject  under  dis- 
cussion." Average  parent  rating  on  traits,  1.65. 


240    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

One  year  later,  age  15-4.  Health  not  quite  so  good. 
Marks  satisfactory  but  not  quite  as  high  as  formerly. 
Inclined  to  worry  over  her  school  work.  Average  rat- 
ing now,  1.95. 

The  maternal  grandfather  was  a  school  teacher  of 
"  fine  ability."  Maternal  grandmother  "  a  student  to 
the  age  of  82."  Uncles  are  successful  professional  and 
business  men.  One  aunt  a  talented  musician.  The 
mother's  brother  was  a  leader  in  his  university  class, 
but  became  insane.  The  paternal  grandfather  and 
grandmother  were  school  teachers.  One  uncle  on  this 
side  is  a  lawyer  and  judge.  E.'s  great  grandfather 
served  the  longest  term  in  the  New  York  state  legisla- 
ture of  any  man  up  to  his  time.  Of  two  other  relatives 
on  this  side,  one  was  a  noted  Congregational  minister 
in  New  York  City,  the  other  a  famous  surgeon. 

Wo.  36.  Boy:  J.  E.  Exceptional  heredity.  Diffi- 
culty in  social  adjustments. 

Age  11-0;  mental  age  16-1;  I  Q  146.  School  work 
irregular,  but  chiefly  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades. 

J.  made  the  remarkable  vocabulary  record  of  74 
correct  definitions.  He  also  passed  the  test  of  repeat- 
ing eight  digits  in  Superior  Adult. 

Has  been  kept  back  in  his  studies  by  ill-health  (in- 
cipient kidney  trouble),  from  which  he  had  largely  re- 
covered at  the  age  of  15.  Has  been  educated  by  a  gov- 
erness and  in  private  schools.  Teachers  consider  him 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       241 

very  unusual  in  ability  but  hardly  up  to  average  in 
social  adaptability. 

J.'s  greatest  difficulty  has  been  in  submitting  to  for- 
mal instruction  and  in  adapting  himself  to  other  chil- 
dren. Until  11  years  old  he  had  but  few  opportunities 
to  associate  with  others  and  was  considered  more  or 
less  erratic.  His  social  adaptability,  however,  has 
steadily  improved,  as  has  also  his  tendency  toward  ir- 
ritability and  imperiousness. 

Both  of  J.'s  parents  are  of  English  descent.  The 
father  is  a  scientist,  educator,  and  publicist.  Two  of 
J.'s  brothers  are  of  average  mentality;  one  sister,  now 
dead,  was  very  superior,  and  another  sister  is  a  woman 
of  very  exceptional  ability.  A  number  of  superior 
relatives  on  both  sides.  One  uncle,  on  the  mother's 
side,  was  an  Admiral  in  the  United  States  Navy. 
Relatives  farther  back  distinguished.  Many  distin- 
guished relatives  on  father's  side,  one  of  whom  was 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Parents'  notes.  As  an  infant  J.  was  much  disturbed 
by  loud  or  sharp  noises.  Showed  superior  ability 
early.  While  still  a  small  child  drew  diagrams  of 
"inventions"  which  proved  to  be  actual  parts  of 
machines  he  had  never  seen.  Great  interest  also  in 
astronomy.  Listed  stars  of  the  fourth  magnitude.  At 
present  (age  11)  works  in  the  laboratory  with  shells, 
doing  a  grade  of  work  which  few  university  seniors 
can  surpass.  Will  soon  publish  a  book  on  California 
shells.  Expects  to  become  a  scientist. 


242    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Four  years  later,  age  15.  Health  improved.  Some 
lessening  of  enthusiasm  in  scientific  work  on  shells, 
accompanied  by  marked  increase  of  interest  in  manly 
sports.  The  expected  book  has  not  been  finished. 
Excellent  school  marks;  work  done  with  decided  ease. 
Social  adaptability  now  average.  An  awakening  sense 
of  responsibility.  Average  parent  rating,  2.40.  At 
this  time  J.'s  teachers  also  testify  to  his  marked  im- 
provement along  social  lines. 

No.  37.  Boy:  M.  A.  Inferior  school  work  and 
marked  lack  of  social  adaptability. 

Tested  first  at  10-11;  mental  age  15-0;  I  Q  137; 

eighth  grade. 

When  tested  nearly  a  year  later  the  I  Q  was  138  and 
he  was  in  the  first  year  of  high  school. 

Heredity  exceptionally  good.  Father  an  able  law- 
yer; mother  formerly  a  teacher  in  a  city  normal  college. 
Many  prominent  men  and  women  among  his  relatives, 
one  of  whom  was  Samuel  Adams. 

An  exceptionally  bright  boy  but  a  problem  for  his 
teachers.  Although  his  mental  age  is  well  above  the 
average  in  the  first  year  of  high  school,  his  grades  run 
from  C  to  D.  Is  temperamental  and  more  or  less 
queer.  Easily  takes  a  dislike  to  teachers  or  classmates. 
Regards  his  school  work  with  more  or  less  contempt 
and  part  of  it  he  refuses  to  try  at  all.  Because  his 
school  work  is  poor  some  of  his  teachers  consider  his 
intelligence  only  average. 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        243 

Teacher's  notes.  An  unusual  ability  to  associate 
facts,  particularly  scientific  facts,  and  to  repeat  from 
memory  after  one  reading.  Rated  4  in  social  adapta- 
bility, leadership,  emotional  self-control  and  unselfish- 
ness. Is  babyish  in  his  play.  Nervous;  has  muscular 
twitchings  and  is  easily  embarrassed  in  class.  Is  se- 
lected by  his  fellows  as  the  one  to  tease,  torment,  and 
nickname.  Cries  easily.  "However,  I  believe  that 
M.  will  become  more  adjusted  to  his  surroundings  and 
make  a  superior  man."  Average  teacher  rating  on 
traits,  2.42. 

Parents'  notes.  Health  good.  No  special  instruc- 
tion in  childhood  except  the  little  he  received  from  a 
workman  on  the  ranch.  Has  been  held  back,  but  is 
now  allowed  to  go  his  own  pace.  Reads  history,  scien- 
tific works  and  all  kinds  of  magazines.  Desires  to 
become  an  inventor.  Average  parent  rating,  1.80. 
(This  was  one  of  the  few  cases  in  which  the  parent's 
ratings  averaged  higher  than  those  of  the  teacher.) 

Later,  age  13.  Marks  in  high  school  now  slightly 
above  average,  and  there  is  marked  improvement  in 
social  adaptability  and  emotional  life.  Average  parent 
rating  at  this  time,  1.60. 

No.  38.  Boy:  A.  L.  S.  Poetic  talent  combined 
with  all-round  ability. 

Age  9-4;  mental  age  13-2;  I  Q  141. 
This  child  was  first  brought  to  our  attention  as  a 
result  of  a  group  test.     We  have  not  yet  had  oppor- 


244    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tunity  to  learn  much  about  him,  except  that  he  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  brightest  pupils  in  the  school  of  the 
small  city  where  he  lives.  The  folio  whig  poem  was 
composed  when  he  was  9  years  old.  It  shows  remark- 
able maturity  of  thought  for  a  child  of  his  age : 

Do  not  worry  over  trifles,  though  to  you  they  may  seem 

great, 

All  your  fretting  will  not  help  you,  or  your  troubles  dissipate. 
If  your  sky  is  dark  and  gloomy,  and  the  sun  is  hid  from 

view, 

Bravely  smile  and  keep  on  smiling, 
And  your  friends  will  smile  with  you. 

Happiness  is  so  contagious,  and  a  smile  is  never  lost; 

Then  why  worry  over  trifles,  though  your  heart  seems  tem- 
pest tossed. 

Therefore  go  on  life's  rough  journey  with  an  optimistic 
smile, 

See  the  world  is  good  to  live  in,  and  that  living  is  worth 
while. 

No.  39.  Boy:  J.  S.  Intensive  mental  culture  in 
early  childhood.  Fine  mental  balance.  Has  a  sister 
who  is  an  infant  prodigy. 

Age  9-6;  mental  age  16-4;  I  Q  172;  sixth  grade. 
Age  10-4;  mental  age  17-8;  I  Q  171;  seventh  grade. 

In  the  first  examination,  age  9|,  J.  passed  four  tests 
in  Superior  Adult,  including  paper  cutting,  eight  digits 
direct  order,  seven  digits  reversed  order,  and  the  in- 
genuity test. 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        245 

Special  interest  attaches  to  J.  because  he  is  a  brother 
of  Martha,  who  at  the  age  of  26  months  was  able  to 
read  any  primer.1 

Father  a  lawyer  and  a  man  of  more  than  ordinary 
ability.  Graduated  from  university  at  21.  Mother 
a  teacher  before  marriage.  Maternal  grandfather  a 
farmer,  of  common  school  education  and  average  abil- 
ity. Uncles  and  aunts  average  or  somewhat  above. 
Paternal  grandfather  a  bookkeeper  of  business  college 
education  and  average  ability.  Paternal  grandmother 
of  average  ability,  common  school  education. 

Father's  notes.  J.'s  superior  ability  first  evident  in 
third  year.  Father  accounts  for  the  superiority  as 
"  due  to  the  fact  that  we  deliberately  set  ourselves  to 
the  task  of  educating  him  when  he  was  a  young  child. 
When  J.  was  a  mere  baby  I  determined  to  start  his 
education.  Commencing  at  the  age  of  two  years  I 
adopted  artifices  to  make  his  play  a  source  of  education 
and  kept  at  it  persistently  until  he  was  five  years  old 
and  had  acquired  the  fundamentals  of  the  first  three 
years  of  school,  after  which  I  dropped  the  matter.  In 
the  case  of  the  second  boy,  I  had  no  time  to  take  that 
course  and  did  not  do  so."  (Second  boy  only  average.) 

Father  describes  J.  as  serious  and  dreamy,  finding 
his  greatest  pleasure  in  reading.  Little  interest  in 
tools  or  machinery.  Quite  different  from  the  boister- 
ous, happy-go-lucky  younger  brother.  If  left  to  his 

1  See  The  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  1918,  pp.  219-28:  "  An 
Experiment  in  Infant  Education." 


246    INTELLIGENCE  OE  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

own  devices  would  spend  all  his  leisure  reading. 
Health  always  perfect  except  for  scarlet  fever  at  5 
years.  Average  rating  on  traits,  2.35. 

One  year  later,  age  llj.  Health  good;  adenoids 
and  tonsils  recently  removed.  Average  of  father's 
rating  on  traits  now  1.75.  Marked  improvement  in 
social  adaptability. 

Teacher's  notes.  "  J.  is  a  boy  of  wonderful  ability 
for  his  years.  In  arithmetic  he  never  draws  an  un- 
warranted conclusion  or  premises  anything  unneces- 
sary to  the  conclusion."  When  he  started  to  school 
he  covered  the  first  grade  in  a  half  day,  the  second 
grade  in  two  months,  the  third  grade  in  six  months, 
and  the  fourth  grade  in  two  months.  All  but  one  of 
the  twenty  traits  graded  1  by  the  teacher,  with  special 
emphasis  on  the  boy's  lack  of  vanity. 

Play  interests  and  play  life  described  as  normal.  No 
physical  handicaps,  nervousness,  or  eccentricities  of 
any  kind.  "  In  every  respect  normal  with  the  excep- 
tion of  superior  intelligence." 

No.  40.  Henry.  Illustrating  the  relative  inde- 
pendence of  I  Q  and  schooling. 

Scientific  ability  overshadowed  by  musical  genius. 
Extreme  poverty. 

As  a  near  neighbor  boy,  Henry  has  been  under  our 
observation  since  the  autumn  of  1910.  At  that  time 
he  was  a  little  more  than  \%\  years  of  age.  He  was 
tested  at  14J,  earning  the  mental  age  of  19  (I  Q  131). 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       247 

Although  the  I  Q  is  satisfactory,  it  is  matched  by 
scores  of  others  among  our  records;  but  there  is  only 
one  Henry. 

Henry  had  never  been  to  school  except  for  a  few 
months  when  he  was  6  years  old.  He  lived  in  a  little 
shanty  with  his  semi-invalid  mother  and  was  the  sole 
source  of  income  for  the  support  of  her  and  himself. 
He  tramped  often  to  the  mountains  in  search  of  rare 
wild  flowers  which  he  brought  home  and  sold  in 
beautiful  bouquets  to  people  who  knew  him.  Some- 
times he  weeded  lawns  or  did  garden  work  for  his 
neighbors.  For  some  years  also  he  served  as  janitor 
for  a  little  rural  school  near  his  home.  His  earnings 
rarely  amounted  to  more  than  $15  a  month,  but  some- 
how he  and  his  mother  managed  to  live  on  this 
amount. 

Henry's  mother,  since  dead,  was  a  woman  of  refine- 
ment and  intellectuality,  the  author  of  two  novels  and 
a  number  of  poems.  She  also  wrote  essays  on  socio- 
logical questions,  at  least  one  of  which  was  published 
in  an  English  periodical  of  international  circulation. 
She  was  an  idealist,  imbued  with  advanced  notions 
regarding  religion,  sociology,  and  woman's  place  in 
the  world. 

Henry's  mother  was  almost  50  years  old  when  he 
was  born.  His  father  was  an  unsuccessful  member 
of  a  distinguished  family.  Henry's  paternal  grand- 
father was  an  Archbishop  of  Ireland,  and  dukes  and 
earls  are  numbered  among  his  cousins. 


248    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Shortly  after  Henry  started  to  school,  at  the  age  of 
6  years,  he  was  one  day  seized  on  his  way  home  from 
school  with  a  strange  muscular  paralysis.  He  fell  to 
the  ground  and  had  to  drag  himself  home.  Chorea 
set  in,  from  which  he  suffered  severe  recurrent  attacks 
for  years.  Except  for  occasional  twitchings,  he  had 
fairly  recovered  at  the  age  of  14,  and  somewhat  later 
his  recovery  was  practically  complete.  On  account  of 
this  nervous  tendency,  however,  his  mother  did  not 
see  fit  to  send  him  to  school,  nor  did  she  give  him  much 
formal  instruction  at  home.  She  talked  with  him 
endlessly,  read  to  him  occasionally,  and  sometimes  he 
read  to  her.  They  discussed  religion,  politics,  and 
matters  of  literature  and  art.  We  have  a  list  of  over 
three  hundred  books  which  Henry  had  read  before  he 
was  14  years  of  age,  also  bulky  notes  of  extensive  con- 
versations which  we  had  with  him  on  such  questions 
as  socialism,  atheism,  scientific  problems,  etc.  At 
14  he  discussed  these  matters  with  greater  breadth  of 
knowledge  and  much  deeper  understanding  than  the 
average  university  senior.  No  less  striking  was  his 
ignorance  in  certain  school  subjects.  His  spelling  was 
wretched,  and  he  had  studied  no  formal  arithmetic 
above  the  four  fundamentals  and  simple  fractions. 

As  a  boy  of  a  dozen  years,  Henry's  appearance  was 
odd  and  interesting  in  the  extreme.  His  speech  was 
quaint,  and  rather  drawled  and  stilted;  his  face  was 
childish,  but  he  looked  at  you  with  eyes  that  seemed 
utterly  void  of  self -consciousness;  his  clothes  were 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        249 

often  ragged  and  always  ill-fitting;  his  hair  hid  his 
ears  and  straggled  down  to  his  shoulders;  his  face  and 
shoulders  twitched  occasionally  with  choreic  spasms. 

Everybody  considered  Henry  as  queer,  not  to  say 
freakish.  If  employed  to  weed  a  lawn  he  was  likely 
to  forget  what  he  was  doing  while  trying  to  compose 
and  whistle  a  tune.  His  janitor  work  was  hardly  more 
successful.  Henry  had  shown  promising  ability  with 
the  violin  at  the  age  of  five  years,  but  his  chorea  had 
put  an  end  to  his  musical  practice.  Neither  violin 
nor  piano  was  touched  again  until  he  was  about  15 
years  of  age.  His  musical  talent,  however,  survived 
all  the  vicissitudes  of  poverty  and  illness.  Henry 
knew  that  his  nervousness,  and  still  more  the  effect 
of  hard  labor  upon  his  hands,  had  ruined  forever  the 
hope  of  his  becoming  a  great  musical  performer;  but 
he  would  become  a  composer.  Day  and  night  he 
dreamed  of  this  and  wrote  out  in  musical  notation 
numberless  compositions. 

At  the  age  of  15,  having  practically  recovered  from 
his  chorea,  Henry  resolved  to  gratify  a  long  cherished 
ambition  —  he  decided  to  purchase  a  piano.  He  found 
an  old  second-hand  one  and  bought  it  for  $60.00,  which 
sum  he  managed  to  save  out  of  his  scanty  earnings  by 
doing  without  various  "  necessities  "  of  life.  Although 
he  had  not  tried  to  play  on  the  piano  before,  within  a 
year  he  was  giving  recitals  among  his  university  friends. 
Within  three  or  four  years  his  playing  was  quite  re- 
markable. Shortly  after  this  his  playing  was  brought 


250    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

to  the  attention  of  prominent  musicians  in  San  Fran- 
cisco who,  with  other  friends,  gave  him  encouragement 
and  help.  He  was  placed  under  the  instruction  of  one 
of  the  best  music  teachers  in  the  West,  and  soon  took 
rank  as  one  of  the  most  promising  pupils  that  instructor 
had  ever  had.  At  the  age  of  19  he  spent  several  months 
in  New  York.  His  compositions  at  this  time  were 
pronounced  promising  by  various  prominent  musi- 
cians. At  the  age  of  20,  without  ever  having  been 
in  school  a  year  in  his  life,  Henry  was  made  Instructor 
of  Harmony  in  the  summer  school  of  a  great  state 
university.  He  was  reappointed  for  a  second  year, 
but  was  soon  afterwards  taken  for  military  service.1 

Those  who  had  considered  Henry  as  merely  a  queer 
child  with  impossible  ideas  and  exasperating  manners 
and  frankness,  were  finally  compelled  to  admit  his 
musical  ability.  Even  then,  however,  he  was  gener- 
ally considered  a  freak  in  all  but  his  musical  ability. 
His  general  intelligence  has  never  been  correctly  ap- 
praised by  the  majority  of  his  friends. 

We  have  seen  the  verdict  of  the  Binet  test.  As  the 
result  of  many  hours  of  conversation  with  the  boy, 
over  a  period  of  many  months,  we  are  convinced  that 

1  On  the  day  when  the  author  read  the  proof  of  this  chapter  a 
letter  reached  him  from  one  of  Henry's  friends  in  which  was  the 

following  statement:  "Professor  S (head  of  the  Department 

of  music  in  the  university  referred  to  above)  says  of  Henry  that 
he  is  the  only  American  known  to  him  who  has  really  great  talent 
for  musical  composition.  Damrosch  has  promised  to  produce  his 
first  symphony,  almost  finished  when  he  enlisted,  as  soon  as  it  is 
put  in  final  shape.  About  a  dozen  of  his  compositions  are  being 
published  at  the  instance  of  Professor  S ." 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       251 

his  ability  in  science  was  almost  as  great  as  in  music. 
Before  the  age  of  12  he  had  read  university  textbooks 
in  botany.  His  knowledge  of  California  wild  flowers 
at  this  age  was  remarkable.  He  had  studied  seriously 
the  principles  of  plant  breeding,  and  for  a  time,  when 
it  seemed  impossible  to  realize  his  musical  ambitions, 
he  considered  botanical  science  for  his  life-work.  He 
might  have  done  so  but  for  the  fact  that  his  educa- 
tion had  been  too  irregular  to  permit  him  to  enter  a 
university. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  things  about  Henry  has 
always  been  his  independence  of  judgment.  His 
opinions  on  all  kinds  of  matters  are  quite  pronounced, 
and  he  expresses  them  without  regard  for  other  peo- 
ple's feelings.  By  many  acquaintances  he  is  consid- 
ered rude  and  ill-mannered.  This  does  him  injustice; 
he  is  merely  naively  honest,  due  both  to  his  tempera- 
ment and  to  the  influence  of  his  early  training. 

It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  Henry  will  become 
one  of  the  famous  musical  composers  of  his  day. 
Several  musical  critics  of  note  hope  for  this  outcome. 
If  he  attains  fame  as  a  musician,  his  biographer  is 
almost  certain  to  describe  his  musical  genius  as  natu- 
ral and  inevitable,  and  to  ignore  the  scientist  that  he 
might  have  been. 

No.  41.  Boy:  D.  B.  Indications  of  real  genius. 
Unequaled  intellectual  spontaneity. 

Age  7-4§;  mental  age  13-7;  IQ  184;  not  in  school. 


252    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

This  is  the  highest  intelligence  quotient  we  have 
ever  found,  and  all  the  supplementary  data  indicate 
that  there  is  no  other  child  in  our  list  who  equals  D. 
in  all-round  intellectual  ability. 

The  test  was  made  before  a  class  of  about  a  hundred 
students  at  Columbia  University.  The  day  was  one 
of  the  most  uncomfortable  in  the  history  of  New  York 
City,  the  official  temperature  for  the  day  being  above 
100  degrees.  The  room  was  close,  ill-ventilated  and 
wretchedly  hot.  The  test  began  with  year  9.  All  of 
the  tests  of  this  group  were  passed.  In  year  10  all  of 
the  tests  were  passed  except  that  of  drawing  designs, 
which  fell  just  short  of  being  satisfactory.  In  year  12, 
seven  of  the  eight  tests  were  passed  with  ease.  The 
three  disarranged  sentences  were  given  without  a  sin- 
gle error  in  12,  10,  and  5  seconds.  The  five  fables 
were  interpreted  as  follows: 

1.  Hercules  and  Wagon  Driver:  "If  you  work  yourself 
you  will  get  help." 

2.  The  Milkmaid  and  her  Plans:  "Do  not  build  castles  in 
the  air." 

3.  The  Fox  and  the  Crow:  "Do  not  listen  to  flattery." 

4.  The  Farmer  and  the  Stork:  "If  you  keep  company 
with  bad  people  you  will  have  to  suffer  the  conse- 
quences." 

5.  The  Miller  and  the  Donkey:  "Stick  to  one  way." 

In  year  14  the  induction  test  was  passed  without 
error,  the  rule  being  given  as  follows:  "You  multiply 
by  two  each  time."  The  other  tests  passed  in  this 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        253 

year  were  president  and  king  and  arithmetical  reason- 
ing. There  was  only  one  success  out  of  three  trials 
in  the  clock  test.  In  Average  Adult  the  fables  and 
box  test  were  passed.  Although  the  examination  cov- 
ered a  wide  range  of  tests,  it  required  only  45  minutes. 
The  responses  were  perfectly  natural,  almost  playful. 
There  was  no  waiting  for  applause,  no  appearance 
whatever  of  vanity. 

Although  D.  was  not  enrolled  in  school  at  the  time 
of  the  test,  he  regularly  attended  the  playground 
activities  at  the  Horace  Mann  practice  school.  Pre- 
viously he  had  attended  a  kindergarten.  All  of  his 
teachers  had  recognized  his  phenomenal  ability. 

Father,  Russian-Jewish;  mother,  Polish -Jewish. 
The  father  is  an  advertising  man  and  writer,  and  has 
published  three  books  of  fiction.  The  mother  is  a 
high-school  graduate,  did  some  work  in  a  university, 
and  has  written  short  stories  and  poems  for  various 
periodicals.  Maternal  grandfather  a  business  man 
of  "  high  intellectuality."  Two  cases  of  unusual  mu- 
sical ability  on  the  mother's  side,  also  several  distin- 
guished rabbis.  Paternal  grandfather  a  business  man 
of  unusual  mechanical  ability,  fond  of  making  and 
solving  puzzles.  The  paternal  grandmother  taught 
herself  to  read  English  late  in  life.  Rabbis  on  this 
side  also. 

D.  is  an  "only"  child.  The  mother  is  a  woman 
of  exceptionally  keen  and  judicial  mind,  and  has  kept 
bulky  notes  on  D.'s  mental  development  since  he  was 


254    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

a  baby.  She  has  furnished  us  with  the  following 
interesting  items  of  information: 

"  D.  stood  alone  between  five  and  six  months ; 
walked  at  nine  months,  and  talked  at  about  a  year. 
First  teeth  between  four  and  five  months.  Nursed 
for  only  five  months.  No  illness  except  measles  and  a 
light  case  of  chicken  pox.  No  physical  defects.  Sleeps 
about  11 J  hours. 

"Played  with  anagrams  when  a  baby  and  learned 
to  read  as  gradually  and  naturally  as  he  learned  to 
talk.  At  three,  without  us  knowing  he  could  do  it,  he 
picked  up  a  new  book  suitable  for  children  of  nine 
years  and  read  it  through  intelligently.  Has  had 
some  private  lessons  in  music  and  gymnastics.  Has 
also  taken  a  few  lessons  in  interpretative  dancing. 

"  Dresses  and  undresses  alone,  bathes  himself,  cleans 
his  teeth  alone  and  tends  to  his  bodily  needs.  Plays 
ball,  bats  and  skates.  Handles  *  mechano  '  models  re- 
quiring deft  fingers.  Typewrites  rapidly,  using  only 
two  fingers  on  each  hand.  Taught  himself  printing 
and  typewriting. 

"  Reads  very  rapidly.  If  he  likes  a  book  will  return 
again  and  again  to  it,  memorizing  the  parts  he  specially 
cares  for.  Probably  averages  eight  or  ten  hours  a 
week  reading.  Leaves  his  book  willingly  to  play,  but 
goes  back  to  it  when  play  is  over. 

"  Recently  a  world  atlas,  baseball  guides,  and  base- 
ball news  in  the  daily  papers  have  all  furnished  him 
with  what  he  calls  *  important  work.'  Has  read  a 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        255 

great  deal  of  Shakespeare  with  a  particular  liking  for 
the  historical  plays.  (Pericles  is  his  favorite.)  His 
knowledge  of  Shakespeare  characters  is  amazing. 
Reads  the  Book  of  Knowledge  and  as  many  animal 
stories  as  he  can  lay  his  hands  on.  Desires  to  travel  in 
order  to  see  and  learn  the  habits  of  wild  animals.  Has 
read  every  history  book  in  the  house,  including  Gib- 
bon and  Grote.  He  criticized  Gibbon  as  *  having 
left  too  much  out '  in  writing  about  Rome.  Among 
his  papers  are  sundry  notes  marked  *  Important  things 
the  Scottish  kings  did,'  *  List  of  Roman  Emperors  and 
what  they  ruled  over/  etc.  This  shows  that  he  reads 
to  find  out  things  which  he  considers  important. 
When  taken  to  the  public  library  he  invariably  chooses 
books  of  history.  Is  very  fond  of  fairy  tales  but  has 
not  been  permitted  to  read  many. 

"D.  will  carry  through  projects  extending  over  long 
periods.  It  took  him  several  days  to  complete  a  map 
of  the  apartment  drawn  to  scale;  many  weeks  off  and 
on,  to  complete  a  geographical  map  of  his  imaginary 
country,  *  Borningtown,'  and  for  a  year  he  spent  much 
time  recording  foreign  state  automobiles  sighted  in 
New  York,  with  directions  for  recognizing  the  various 
licenses.  Has  notebooks  and  papers  covered  with  base- 
ball data.  Keeps  data  embodying  special  features  of 
maps,  charts,  etc.  In  reading  Shakespeare  pays  care- 
ful attention  to  the  notes  on  the  text,  which  in  the  edi- 
tion he  is  reading  (Knight)  are  voluminous.  A  recent 
interest  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the  foreign  autos 


256    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

is  that  of  the  trolley  system  of  New  York  City.  His 
pockets  bulge  with  notes  and  transfers  (together  with 
marbles,  with  which  he  plays  at  every  opportunity). 

"Plays  games  with  cards,  a  baseball  game,  and  a 
question  game.  The  latter  is  an  information  contest. 
In  the  game  of  characters  his  side  always  wins,  for  he 
has  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  Shakespeare  characters 
to  draw  upon.  Similarly  when  it  comes  to  cities  or  riv- 
ers, such  sources  as  Russia  furnish  him  a  supply  which 
no  one  else  can  compete  with.  Other  games  which  he 
likes  are  various  kinds  of  solitaire,  chess,  and  quite  a 
difficult  game  shown  to  him  by  a  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics, a  game  in  which  he  outplays  every  one  by  his 
unerring  calculation  in  what  he  called  its  *  double 
corner.' ': 

The  foregoing  notes  refer  to  D.'s  reading  and  abili- 
ties prior  to  August,  1917.  In  March,  1918,  the  mother 
writes  as  follows : 

"His  Shakespeare  interest  holds,  but  he  has  read 
recently  much  less  history.  Has  developed  an  interest 
in  the  scientific  articles  in  the  Book  of  Knowledge.  Re- 
cently showed  me  a  toy  telescope  which  he  had  made 
out  of  his  old  miscroscope  and  mounted  on  the  steel 
parts  of  his  mechano.  Spends  hours  over  his  toy  train 
tracks.  Once  calculated  how  long  it  would  take  his 
little  train  to  run  a  mile  at  the  rate  it  went  around  his 
track;  measuring  in  the  center  of  the  track,  he  ex- 
plained, *  to  be  sure  to  get  the  exact  answer.' 

"Last  year  his  expressed  vocational  ambition  was 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        257 

to  be  a  baseball  player.  Later,  he  said  that  while  he 
had  not  given  up  his  plan  to  be  a  baseball  player,  he 
had  decided  also  to  be  an  author.  This  was  while  he 
was  deep  hi  his  ventures  of  book  writing,  having  be- 
gun three  or  four  different  books  in  the  fall  of  1917 
and  finished  a  play  for  his  mother's  birthday.  He 
has  begun  a  book  called  Borningtown,  with  chapters  and 
headings  already  planned;  also  another  book  called 
Facts  about  Borningtown  and  Washabett,  with  table  of 
contents  and  headings  for  fifty  chapters !  Of  the  text 
so  far  there  are  five  typewritten  pages  and  one  illus- 
tration. A  third  book  is  about  Bully  Wully,  or  the 
Magical  Egg. 

"  Another  new  interest  is  the  dictionary  he  is  mak- 
ing of  'Borningtown/  Many  of  the  words  which  he 
makes  up  for  this  dictionary  are  intended  as  improve- 
ments on  the  English  language.  For  example  — 
*  smallen,'  to  make  small.  His  interest  in  words  and 
their  derivations  led  us  to  begin  this  year  a  little 
formal  Latin,  at  which  he  spends  about  an  hour  a 
week.  His  ability  to  analyze  and  classify  have  made 
it  quite  easy  for  him  to  learn  thus  far  the  first  and 
second  declensions  of  nouns  and  adjectives  and  a  few 
conjugations. 

"He  learned  to  count,  to  add  and  to  subtract  by 
means  of  playing  cards,  which  were  among  his  first 
playthings.  Formal  arithmetic  was  begun  when  he 
was  7  years  old  by  spending  about  an  hour  a  week 
upon  it.  This  year  he  is  giving  about  an  hour  each 


258    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

week  to  algebra  and  about  as  much  to  geometry,  with 
his  father  as  teacher.  He  has  no  difficulty  with  either 
subject.  Often  sets  himself  problems  in  geometry  to 
solve. 

"In  the  study  of  music  has  applied  his  ability  to 
analyze  and  arrange  so  that  he  has  made  big  strides  in 
musical  theory  and  wants  to  compose  melodies  to  fit 
the  words  of  the  poems  he  selects. 

"  Conscientious.  Refuses  to  lie.  Clings  tenaciously 
to  a  standard  which  he  recognizes  as  desirable.  Used 
to  mark  himself  for  what  he  considered  good  writ- 
ing and  was  quick  to  acknowledge  poor  work.  Obeys 
instructions  regarding  errands,  etc.  Above  average 
in  unselfishness.  Makes  plans  to  give  pleasure  to 
others,  and  often,  with  a  manifest  effort,  of  his  own 
volition  leaves  the  best  or  biggest  for  some  one  else. 
Loves  to  share  his  pleasures.  Will  remark  at  selfish- 
ness in  others." 

The  above  account  contains  so  many  things  it  is 
hard  to  associate  with  the  chronological  age  of  7  years 
that  the  reader  may  be  inclined  to  allow  something  for 
maternal  prejudice.  To  do  so  in  this  case  would  be  a 
mistake.  The  Binet  test,  made  under  extraordinarily 
unfavorable  conditions,  indicates  a  level  of  mental 
ability  not  far  below  that  which  is  normal  for  children 
of  14  years.  We  have  also  the  testimony  of  the  kinder- 
garten and  playground  instructors  in  the  Horace 
Mann  school,  which  agreed  thoroughly  with  the  notes 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       259 

furnished  by  the  mother.  The  average  rating  given  by 
the  mother  on  the  twenty  traits  was  1.93;  that  of  the 
kindergarten  teacher  who  knew  D.  best,  1.90.  His 
former  kindergarten  teacher  says:  "  D.  is  a  most  re- 
markable boy.  His  greatest  difficulty  has  been  social 
adaptability,  but  his  experience  in  kindergarten  and 
playground  has  brought  him  well  up  toward  the  nor- 
mal in  this  respect.  Reads  the  Iliad  and  Shakespeare 
and  publishes  a  weekly  playground  newspaper." 

One  who  desired  further  proof  of  D.'s  exceptional 
intelligence  would  find  it  in  convincing  abundance  in 
any  issue  of  this  newspaper,  which  is  a  rare  essay  in 
journalism  for  a  boy  of  7  years.  It  is  a  one  sheet, 
three  column  affair,  typed.  All  of  the  composition  is 
done  by  D.  who  "  prints  "  it  on  his  typewriter.  There 
is  a  joke  section,  an  advertising  section,  a  news  sec- 
tion, and  various  extras  and  incidentals  from  time  to 
time.  The  jokes  are  often  such  as  would  not  be  un- 
derstood by  children  below  the  mental  level  of  twelve 
years. 

It  will  be  seen  that  D.  is  far  superior  in  general 
ability  to  any  of  the  other  children  we  have  described. 
His  ability  seems  to  compare  favorably  with  that  of 
Francis  Galton,1  who  in  childhood  showed  similar  in- 
dications of  genius.  Whether  the  promise  of  the  pres- 
ent will  be  fulfilled,  only  the  future  can  tell.  How- 

1  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  "The  Intelligence  Quotient  of  Francis 
Galton,"  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  1918.  Compare  also 
"The  Psychology  of  a  Prodigious  Child,"  Journal  of  Applied 
Psychology,  1917,  by  Leta  S.  Hollingworth  and  others. 


260    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

ever,  considering  his  fine  balance  of  personal,  moral, 
and  intellectual  traits,  there  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  he  will  become  a  distinguished  man. 

Indications  of  superior  endowment.  Doubtless  the 
reader  has  sensed  a  degree  of  monotony  in  the  above 
descriptions  of  superior  children.  Such  children  show 
the  usual  individual  differences  in  temperament  and 
personality,  but  intellectually  they  have  much  in  com- 
mon. Certain  qualities  are  mentioned  again  and  again 
by  both  parent  and  teacher.  Phrases  most  often  used 
in  giving  indications  of  superior  endowment  are  the 
following : 

"  Alert  beyond  his  years  "  ; 

"  Has  such  keen  powers  of  observation  "  ; 

"  Shows  a  passionate  desire  to  learn  "  ; 

"  Asks  endless  questions  "  ; 

"  Is  interested  in  everything  "  ; 

"  Is  ambitious  to  excel "  ; 

"  Gets  the  highest  school  marks  "  ; 

"  Writes  such  wonderful  examination  papers  "  ; 

"  Has  such  a  fine  command  of  language  "  ; 

"  Has  fine  reasoning  powers  "  ; 

"  Shows  independence  of  judgment "  ; 

"  Is  an  original  thinker  "  ; 

"Answers  always  to  the  point"; 

"  Has  a  keen  sense  of  humor  "  ; 

"  Has  unusual  power  of  concentration  "  ; 

"  Is  more  dependable  than  other  children  of  his  age  "; 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN       261 

"  Conscientious  to  a  fault "  ; 

"  Such  a  lovable  child  ";  etc. 

Many  are  also  described  as  exceptionally  truthful, 
sympathetic,  generous,  thoughtful  of  others,  and  en- 
dowed with  a  sense  of  moral  responsibility  which 
shows  itself  in  a  willingness  to  work  and  to  deny  them- 
selves for  social  ends.  Other  symptoms  of  superior  en- 
dowment receiving  frequent  mention  include  the  early 
learning  of  nursery  jingles;  ease  of  memorizing;  learn- 
ing, without  instruction,  to  count  and  to  name  the 
days  of  the  week  and  the  months  of  the  year;  rapidity 
of  learning  to  read;  learning  to  read  without  instruc- 
tion by  means  of  newspapers,  advertisements,  or  tele- 
phone books;  desire  to  write;  love  of  reading;  prefer- 
ence for  worth-while  books;  liking  for  dictionaries  and 
encyclopaedias;  absorption  with  hobbies,  such  as  col- 
lections, wireless  telegraphy,  and  educational  games. 
These  indications  are  mentioned  so  often  as  to  appear 
well-nigh  universal  with  this  class  of  children. 

Only  a  few  have  traits  that  are  undesirable.  Several 
are  more  or  less  nervous,  a  few  are  exceptionally  timid, 
three  or  four  are  somewhat  vain,  a  few  dislike  the  rou- 
tine and  restraint  of  the  school,  one  is  rather  lazy,  one 
lacks  affection,  one  shows  symptoms  of  incorrigibility 
at  home,  and  several  are  below  average  in  leadership 
and  social  adaptability.  Making  proper  social  adjust- 
ments is  perhaps  the  most  difficult  problem  for  these 
superior  ch  ildren .  Their  intellectual  superiority  tends 
to  set  them  apart  from  children  of  their  own  age,  while 


262    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

they  are  at  the  same  time  prevented  from  equal  asso- 
ciation with  older  children  both  by  their  lack  of  physi- 
cal strength  and  by  the  relative  immaturity  of  their 
play  instincts.  No.  42,  for  example,  who  at  the  age 
of  7  tests  above  13|,  obviously  cannot  compete  with 
average  13-year-old  boys  in  the  usual  games  of  physi- 
cal skill,  nor  is  he  near  enough  adolescence  to  share 
their  mental  outlook.  His  play  interests  are  in  many 
respects  like  those  of  ordinary  children  of  7  years ;  yet 
he  is  largely  cut  off  from  natural  association  with  such 
children  by  the  fact  that  he  speaks  a  different  lan- 
guage. His  vocabulary  is  so  "  grown-up  "  that  his 
playfellows  often  cannot  understand  what  he  is  talking 
about.  Considering  such  difficulties,  the  wonder  is 
that  only  two  or  three  of  our  superior  children  are  no- 
ticeably queer  socially,  and  that  only  one  borders  on 
the  "outcast." 

Objections  to  grading  superior  children  by  mental 
age.  The  question  may  be  raised  whether  the  diffi- 
culty of  social  adjustment  does  not  constitute  a  serious 
objection  to  the  plan  of  grading  superior  children  ac- 
cording to  mental  age,  since  this  would  associate  them 
in  class  work  with  children  who  are  several  years  older. 
This  danger,  however,  is  largely  offset  by  the  oppor- 
tunities which  the  playground  offers  for  making  con- 
genial acquaintances.  The  injury  done  by  having 
such  a  child  recite  with  children  whom  he  cannot  com- 
pete with  in  play  must  be  very  slight  compared  to  the 
intellectual  and  moral  injury  which  is  wrought  by 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        263 

keeping  him  always  at  tasks  which  are  too  easy  to 
command  his  best  efforts. 

One  solution  would  be  to  have  the  child  of  excep- 
tional ability  remain  out  of  school  every  second  or  third 
year.  This  would  tend  to  keep  him  in  class  with 
children  of  about  his  own  age,  while  at  the  same  time 
requiring  a  reasonable  amount  of  effort  to  keep  up  in 
school  work.  The  plan  assumes,  however,  that  the 
school  authorities  will  allow  such  a  child  to  skip  the 
grade  which  his  fellows  take  while  he  is  out  of  school. 
If  this  were  not  allowed,  and  often  it  would  not  be,  the 
situation  would  only  be  made  worse.  The  plan  of 
"  periodic  rests  "  has  the  further  objection  that  by  de- 
priving the  child  of  the  social  opportunities  which  the 
school  offers  it  would  make  his  isolation  more  com- 
plete. Besides,  there  are  few  homes  which  could  be 
expected  to  fill  the  child's  free  year  with  experiences 
of  real  educational  value. 

Opportunity  classes  for  superior  children.  The  re- 
sponsibility for  the  right  education  of  superior  children 
belongs  with  the  school.  If  the  opportunities  now 
offered  are  not  suitable,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to 
provide  something  better.  While  some  relief  is  fur- 
nished by  an  elastic  system  of  promotion  which  will 
allow  the  superior  child  to  skip  a  half  grade  occasion- 
ally, this  should  be  regarded  as  a  makeshift  rather  than 
a  final  solution  of  the  problem.  The  contribution  of 
the  school  must  be  more  positive  and  more  educa- 
tional. If  the  needs  of  superior  children  are  to  be 


A    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

.net,  special  classes  and  special  courses  will  have  to 
be  provided.  The  advantages  of  such  classes  are 
many. 

(1)  They  allow  children  to  make  rapid  progress 
without  skipping  vital  parts  of  the  subject-mat- 
ter; 

(2)  They  allow  a  broadening  and  enriching  of  the 
course  of  study  because  of  the  larger  accom- 
plishments possible  to  superior  minds; 

(3)  They  are  a  discouragement  to  vanity  because 
the  level  of    competition    is    raised    and    the 
measure  of  a  child's  success  depends  upon  his 
relative  standing  in  the  class; 

(4)  They  insure  the  mental  and  moral  training 
which  can  come  only  from  sustained  effort; 

(5)  They  furnish  an  atmosphere  which  is  intellec- 
tually much  more  stimulating  than  that  found 
in  the  average  class; 

(6)  Since  they  bring  together  children  of   similar 
age  and  attainments,  they  go  far  to  solve  the 
problem  of  social  adjustment. 

Wherever  "  opportunity  classes  "  for  bright  children 
Lave  been  tried  they  have  proved  an  immediate  and 
surprising  success.  The  children  are  touched  by  new 
\/  life  and  inspired  with  new  enthusiasm.  That  two  or 
three  grades  are  usually  covered  in  one  year  is  perhaps 
a  matter  of  secondary  importance  compared  with  the 
intellectual  awakening  and  the  intensification  of  effort 
which  such  classes  provoke.  The  results  have  been 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        265 

so  uniformly  successful  that  the  special  class  for  gifted 
children  may  be  considered  to  have  passed  the  experi- 
mental stage.  The  following  illustration  is  typical : 

In  February,  1917,  an  opportunity  class  was  formed 
in  Louisville,  Kentucky.  It  consisted  of  21  children 
selected  by  means  of  Binet  tests.  The  intelligence 
quotients  ranged  from  120  to  167,  fifteen  being  above 
135.  The  class  covered  the  work  of  an  entire  grade  in 
a  half  year.  "Besides  the  accomplishment  of  this 
work,  the  children  learned  to  use  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  freedom  400  words  in  conversational  Ger- 
man. They  also  composed  the  words  and  music  of 
a  spring  song  and  an  operetta.  The  class  did  this 
work  happily  and  with  ease.  Home  study  was  dis- 
couraged, except  where  it  was  a  matter  of  great  desire, 
and  then  it  was  limited  to  twenty  minutes.  ...  In 
character  and  disposition  these  children  are  conceded 
by  all  who  know  them  to  be  superior.  They  are  not 
conceited  or  puffed  up  by  their  selection  for  the 
class."  Miss  Race,  from  whom  the  above  is  quoted, 
states  that  whatever  touches  of  conceit  were  present 
at  the  beginning  of  the  class  were  largely  eradicated 
before  the  end  of  the  term.1 

A  similar  class  has  been  conducted  in  New  York 
City  by  Miss  May  Irwin,2  and  another  in  Urbana, 


1  Race,  Henrietta,  "A  Study  of  a  Class  of  Children  of  Superior 
Intelligence,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1918,  pp.  91-97. 

2  See  Louise  F.  Specht:    "A  Terman  Class  in  School  No.  84, 
Manhattan,"  School  and  Society,  March  29,  1919,  pp.  393-98. 


266    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Illinois,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Whipple.1  In 
both  cases  the  results  agreed  in  a  striking  way  with 
those  of  the  Louisville  experiment. 

Class  sectioning  according  to  mental  ability.  When 
the  school  system  is  very  small,  or  when  other  condi- 
tions prevent  the  formation  of  a  special  class  for  the 
children  of  exceptional  ability,  their  needs  may  be  to  a 
certain  extent  provided  for  by  the  division  of  the  regu- 
lar class  into  three  sections :  a  slow-moving,  a  normal, 
and  a  fast-moving  group.  For  example,  in  a  second- 
grade  class  of  forty  pupils  the  groups  might  contain 
ten,  twenty,  and  ten  pupils  respectively.  These 
could  be  instructed  by  the  same  teacher,  but  as  sepa- 
rate classes  making  different  progress  and  doing  work 
of  somewhat  different  quality.  The  work  of  the  three 
sections  could  be  so  organized  that  their  separate 
instruction  would  be  by  no  means  an  added  burden 
to  the  teacher. 

This  chapter  has  been  largely  devoted  to  descrip- 
tions of  children  of  very  exceptional  superiority. 
Probably  not  more  than  one  child  in  a  hundred  tests 
above  135  and  not  more  than  one  in  two  hundred 
above  140.  The  children  who  test  between  120  and 
135  are  several  times  as  numerous,  and  almost  equally 
in  need  of  special  advantages.  It  is  from  this  group 
that  the  majority  of  teachers,  doctors,  lawyers,  min- 
isters and  other  professional  men  and  women  come. 

1  Whipple,  G.  M.,  Classes  for  Gifted  Children  (School  and  Home 
Pub.  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.,  1919);  pp.  151. 


FORTY-ONE  SUPERIOR  CHILDREN        267 

Special  classes  for  eight  or  ten  per  cent  of  the  pupils 
are  perhaps  not  feasible  and  may  not  be  necessary, 
but  much  can  be  done  by  the  sectioning  of  classes  in 
the  manner  just  indicated  and  by  making  the  system 
of  promotion  more  elastic. 


CHAPTER  XII 

INTELLIGENCE  TESTS  IN  VOCATIONAL  AND 
EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  * 

Educational  and  vocational  guidance  inseparable. 
Vocational  guidance  usually  receives  attention  only  on 
the  eve  of  the  child's  departure  from  school.  Thus 
restricted,  it  falls  greatly  short  of  its  possible  value. 
If  the  pupil  is  to  be  properly  trained  for  his  life-work, 
as  well  as  directed  to  it,  his  education  must  at  every 
step  take  account  of  his  vocational  possibilities.  That 
is,  vocational  guidance  must  be  preceded  by  educa- 
tional guidance. 

Previous  chapters  have  shown  how  frequently  the 
school  errs  in  attempting  to  force  children  through 
courses  of  study  which  are  beyond  their  intellectual 
capacities,  and  how  futile  and  discouraging  such  ef- 
forts are.  A  large  proportion  of  children  must  leave 
school  with  little  direct  preparation  for  life,  simply 
because  they  are  intellectually  incapable  of  mastering 
the  contents  of  a  curriculum  which  the  school  has  set 
up  as  theoretically  desirable  for  all.  It  is  time  that  the 
school  should  ask  not  only  what  it  would  like  to  do, 
but  what  it  can  do.  Facts  have  been  presented  which 
show  that  the  limits  of  a  child's  educability  can  be 

1  See  also  Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  Vocational  Psychology  (D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.,  1916);  pp.  308. 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      269 

fairly  accurately  predicted  by  means  of  mental  tests 
given  in  the  first  school  year.  By  repeated  tests  these 
limits  can  be  determined  accurately  enough  for  all 
practical  purposes  by  the  end  of  the  child's  fifth  or 
sixth  school  year.  This  early,  at  least,  vocational 
training  and  vocational  guidance  should  begin. 

The  end  is  not  merely  that  of  keeping  the  child  in 
school.  This  hi  itself  is  not  necessarily  desirable.  In 
the  conservative  school  system  offering  only  the  tradi- 
tional courses,  it  is  perhaps  just  as  well  that  pupils  of 
80 1  Q  or  lower  (i.e.,  10  per  cent  of  all)  should  drop  out 
by  the  age  of  fifteen  years.  By  that  time  they  have 
gotten  about  all  they  can  get  from  the  older  type  of 
restricted  elementary  curriculum.  Continuation  would 
mean  nothing  more  than  to  remain  hopelessly  stranded 
in  the  sixth  or  seventh  grade,  without  further  effective 
training  except  training  in  failure. 

Limitations  of  vocational  guidance.  It  must  not  be 
supposed  that  vocational  guidance,  in  the  sense  of  de- 
termining exactly  which  of  a  thousand  or  more  voca- 
tions a  given  individual  should  enter,  is  yet  possible. 
The  most  important  contribution  which  psychological 
tests  are  at  present  prepared  to  make  is  in  the  meas- 
urement of  general  intelligence.  The  special  abilities 
which  so  largely  influence  success  in  the  majority  of 
vocations  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  analyzed, 
much  less  measured.  The  intangible  factors  of  inter- 
est, will  power,  social  adaptability,  leadership,  and 
personality  are  still  less  subject  to  exact  determina- 


270    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tion,  although  their  combined  influence  upon  voca- 
tional success  is  doubtless  very  great.  One's  general 
ability  may  fit  him  equally  for  success  in  a  dozen 
different  vocations,  and  in  this  case  the  ultimate 
choice  should  depend  upon  practical  considerations, 
natural  interests,  and  various  traits  of  personality. 

Nevertheless,  intelligence  tests  will  be  of  great 
value  in  vocational  guidance,  even  if  they  tell  us  noth- 
ing more  than  that  reasonable  success  in  a  given  voca- 
tion is  or  is  not  compatible  with  the  general  mental 
ability  which  an  individual  possesses.  The  saddest  as 
well  as  perhaps  the  most  common  failures  in  life  are 
due  to  the  selection  of  a  vocation  which  requires  a 
higher  grade  of  ability  than  the  individual  possesses. 
Hardly  less  unfortunate  is  the  person  whose  too  mod- 
est self -estimate  lands  him  in  an  occupation  that  is  in- 
tellectually beneath  him.  A  mistake  in  either  direction 
entails  bitter  disappointment,  since  often  it  is  not  dis- 
covered until  the  time  for  new  choices  has  gone  by. 

Mistakes  of  this  kind  can  be  largely  prevented  by 
intelligence  tests  as  soon  as  the  proper  factual  basis 
has  been  laid.  First,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
find  the  actual  ranges  of  intelligence  represented  in 
the  different  types  of  vocations,  and  especially  the 
lower  limit  of  intelligence  which  permits  reasonable 
success.  It  will  also  be  necessary  to  determine  for  each 
typical  vocation  the  level  of  mental  ability  which  rep- 
resents the  "  point  of  diminishing  returns,"  in  order  to 
prevent  superior  ability  from  being  wasted  upon  voca- 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      271 

tions  which  make  only  moderate  intellectual  demands. 
Tests  in  sufficient  number  will  doubtless  show  that 
there  exists  for  most  vocations  a  middle  range  of  men- 
tal ability  in  which  the  chances  of  success  are  near  the 
maximum,  that  intelligence  below  this  range  becomes 
less  and  less  favorable  to  success  until  a  "  dead  line  "  is 
reached,  and  that  ability  of  a  higher  order  represents 
only  so  much  sheer  waste.  When  such  standards  of  oc- 
cupational intelligence  are  available,  they  will  furnish 
the  most  important  single  basis  for  vocational  and  edu- 
cational guidance.  Knowing  the  intelligence  of  the 
child  we  could  then  select  the  vocations  well  within 
the  range  of  this  intelligence,  and  leave  it  to  the  child's 
natural  interests  and  to  practical  considerations  to 
make  the  final  choice.  Such  a  method  would  not  elimi- 
nate the  possibility  of  vocational  failure,  but  it  would 
eliminate  one  of  its  most  common  causes.  Until  the 
intellectual  requirements  of  the  different  vocations 
have  been  more  definitely  established,  some  sugges- 
tion for  guidance  may  be  gleaned  from  the  following 
studies  of  typical  vocational  groups. 

Firemen  and  policemen.  In  1916  the  city  of  San 
Jose,  California,  made  an  unusual  experiment,  per- 
haps the  first  of  its  kind  in  this  or  any  country.1  The 
experiment  involved  a  civil  service  examination  for 
positions  in  the  fire  and  police  departments,  based 
entirely  upon  standardized  mental  and  educational 

1  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  "A  Trial  of  Mental  and  Pedagogical  Tests 
in  a  Civil  Service  Examination  for  Policemen  and  Firemen," 
Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  1917,  pp.  17-29. 


272    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tests.  The  tests  used  included  the  Stanford-Binet  in- 
telligence scale,  the  Trabue  Completion  Test,  the 
Thorndike  Oral  Reading  Test,  the  Courtis  Standard 
Test  in  arithmetic,  a  handwriting  test,  and  the  Otis 
tests  of  spelling  and  arithmetical  reasoning. 

Thirty  candidates  presented  themselves  in  competi- 
tion for  the  ten  or  twelve  prospective  openings.  All 
were  American  born,  with  ages  distributed  fairly  evenly 
between  21  and  38  years.  Their  incomes  during  the  pre- 
vious year  ranged  from  $420  to  $1350,  with  a  median 
of  $960.  Their  previous  occupations  ranged  from 
totally  unskilled  to  skilled  and  high-grade  clerical. 

The  distribution  of  mental  ages  and  I  Q's  was  as 
follows : 


Mental 
age 

10  to 
10-11 

11  to 
11-11 

12  to 
12-11 

13  to 
13-11 

14  to 
14-11 

15  to 

15-11 

16  to 
16-11 

17  to 
17-11 

18  to 
18-11 

Number 

1 

2 

7 

7 

8 

2 

1 

1 

1 

IQ 

60- 
64 

R5- 
69 

70- 
74 

75- 
79 

80- 

84 

85- 
89 

90- 
94 

95- 
99 

100- 
104 

105- 
109 

110- 
115 

Number 

1 

1 

2 

6 

7 

4 

4 

2 

1 

1 

1 

The  median  mental  age  was  13-5,  the  median  I  Q  84.1 
The  lowest  fourth  fell  below  78  I  Q,  the  highest  fourth 
reached  91 1  Q  or  above.  The  minimum  I  Q  compati- 
ble with  efficiency  for  policemen  and  firemen  is  not 
known,  but,  in  the  absence  of  a  definitely  established 
standard,  all  who  tested  below  80  I  Q  were  rejected 

1  The  reader  is  reminded  that  in  calculating  the  I  Q  for  adult 
subjects  chronological  age  above  16  years  is  disregarded.  That  is, 
mental  age  is  always  divided  by  16. 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      273 

without  further  consideration.  Choice  from  the  re- 
mainder was  made  on  the  basis  of  personal  history, 
and  on  the  combined  results  of  the  various  tests. 

Among  those  testing  below  80 1  Q  were  four  individ- 
uals who  were  already  serving  hi  the  fire  department 
as  "  extras."  They  had  gotten  their  positions  under  an 
earlier  political  regime.  The  I  Q's  of  these  four  men 
were  63, 74,  77,  and  79.  The  63  I  Q  individual  was  34 
years  of  age,  and  had  never  earned  a  wage  more  than 
two  thirds  as  high  as  that  paid  the  average  unskilled  la- 
borer in  his  community.  His  deficiency  is  well  known 
to  his  acquaintances,  and  he  had  secured  his  position 
as  "  extra^ "  only  through  the  influence  of  his  father,  a 
man  of  some  local  prominence. 

The  individual  who  tested  at  67 1 Q  was  pronounced 
by  the  captain  of  his  militia  company  to  be  unques- 
tionably feeble-minded.  He  had  never  done  better 
than  unskilled  labor,  and  at  the  time  of  the  examina- 
tion was  without  employment.  Another  of  71 1 Q  had 
formerly  worked  as  a  hotel  porter  and  also  as  a  railroad 
signalman.  Although  the  duties  of  a  railroad  signal- 
man are  extremely  simple,  they  require  attentive  per- 
formance, and  one  may  well  doubt  whether  they  can 
be  safely  entrusted  to  an  I  Q  of  71. 

The  following  notes  may  also  be  of  interest  as  show- 
ing what  may  be  expected  of  various  I  Q's: 

I  Q  77.  Common  laborer  in  a  sawmill.  Had  served 
one  term  in  the  regular  army,  and  reenlisted  after 
failure  in  the  examination. 


274    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


I  Q  78.  Delivery-man  for  a  grocery  store  and  "  ex- 
tra "  in  the  fire  department. 

I  Q  78.    A  teamster,  unskilled  laborer. 

I  Q  79.  No  occupation  except  as  "  extra  "  in  the 
fire  department. 

I  Q  81.  Had  served  several  years  as  policeman  in 
an  eastern  State  at  $65  to  $80  per  month. 

I  Q  83.  A  successful  street-car  conductor,  said  to 
be  very  popular  with  his  patrons  because  of  his  genial 
good  nature  and  his  interest  in  people. 

I  Q  112.  Had  completed  the  second  year  of  high 
school,  and  had  earned  as  high  as  $125  per  month  as  a 
salesman.  His  purpose  in  securing  a  position  in  the 
fire  department  was  to  secure  leisure  for  a  correspond- 
ence course  in  expert  accounting. 

Such  data  would  suggest  that  the  I  Q  of  75  or  below 
belongs  ordinarily  in  the  unskilled  labor  class,  that  75 
to  85  is  preeminently  the  range  for  semi-skilled  labor, 
and  that  80  or  85  is  ample  for  success  in  some  kinds  of 
skilled  labor.  When  the  candidates  were  classified  into 
unskilled,  semi-skilled,  and  skilled,  according  to  the 
occupations  they  had  followed,  the  following  I  Q 
ranges  and  averages  were  found : 


Unskilled 

Semi-skilled 

Skilled  or  better 

Range  of  I  Q        

63  to  89 

74  to  96 

84  to  112 

Average  I  Q  

75.5 

85.2 

98.3 

TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      275 


Express  company  employees.  Flanders 1  gave  Stan- 
ford-Binet  tests  to  47  employees  of  a  large  express 
company.  Only  those  were  tested  who  had  been  with 
the  company  at  least  a  year.  The  work  they  were  do- 
ing is  indicated  by  the  following  random  selections: 
Accounting  Clerk,  C.O.D.  Clerk,  Settlement  Clerk, 
Waybill  Clerk,  Receiving  Clerk,  Clerk  in  Value  Room, 
Clerk  in  On  Hand  Department,  Wagon  Dispatcher, 
Chief  Router,  etc.  These  were  typical  of  the  rank  and 
file  of  seven  hundred  employees,  not  including  super- 
visors or  semi-officials  at  one  end  or  floaters  at  the 
other.  In  practically  all  cases  the  work  involved  a  high 
degree  of  specialization,  "  offering  exceedingly  limited 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  or  even  per- 
sonal judgment.  Success  is  achieved  by  the  faithful 
and  careful  performance  of  a  simple  task  for  the  doing 
of  which  perfectly  definite  rules  have  been  given."  Al- 
though the  work  done  by  the  forty-seven  employees 
apparently  differed  little  as  regards  the  amount  of  in- 
telligence required,  the  following  wide  range  of  mental 
ages  was  found: 


10  to 

11  to 

12  to 

13  to 

14  to 

15  to 

16  to 

17  to 

18  to 

Number  

10-11 
1 

11-11 
2 

12-11 

o 

13-11 
g 

14-11 

7 

15-11 
13 

1&-11 
4 

17-11 
5 

18-11 
6 

The  range  was  from  10  years  (I  Q  62)  to  18-7  (I  Q 
116)  with  a  median  of  15-2  (I  Q  95).  One  fourth  were 

1  Flanders,  J.  K.,  "  Mental  Tests  of  a  Group  of  Employed  Men, 
Showing  Correlations  with  Estimates  furnished  by  Employer," 
Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  1918,  pp.  197-206. 


276    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

below  13-10  (I  Q  86)  and  one  fourth  above  16-7  (I  Q 
104). 

It  is  surprising  to  find  men  with  intelligence  which 
would  enable  them  to  take  a  college  course  competing 
with  others  who  could  never  graduate  from  the  eighth 
grade.  As  stated  by  Flanders,  "  such  individuals  are 
possibly  lacking  in  certain  emotional,  moral,  or  other 
desirable  qualities;  it  may  be  that  economic  pres- 
sure crowded  them  out  of  school  before  they  were 
able  to  prepare  for  more  exacting  service;  it  may  be 
that  the  schools  did  not  provide  them  with  suitable 
vocational  training;  it  may  be  that  they  selected  their 
vocations  blindly  and  ignorantly.  Whatever  the  reason 
there  is  evidently  a  big  social  and  economic  loss." 

Flanders  concludes  by  calling  attention  to  the  abun- 
dant occupational  opportunities  open  to  men  of  70  to 
80  I  Q  (mental  age  11  to  13  years).  The  evolution 
of  modern  industrial  organization  together  with  the 
mechanization  of  processes  by  machinery  is  making 
possible  a  larger  and  larger  utilization  of  inferior  men- 
tality. One  man  with  ability  to  think  and  plan  guides 
the  labor  of  ten  or  twenty  laborers,  who  do  what  they 
are  told  to  do  and  have  little  need  for  resourcefulness 
or  initiative.  It  is  even  suggested  that  our  chief  diffi- 
culty may  soon  be  to  provide  enough  suitable  jobs  for 
those  of  higher  intellectual  capacity.  We  can  at  least 
rest  assured  that  society  has  and  will  continue  to  have 
place  enough  for  workers  of  decidedly  inferior  intelli- 
gence provided  they  are  given  a  training  which  is  suf- 
ficiently practical  and  concrete. 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  •    277 

Street-car  employees  and  salesgirls.  C.  W.  Waugh 
tested  82  street-car  motormen  and  conductors,  61 
salesgirls  in  a  large  department  store,  7  railroad  engi- 
neers, and  4  department  store  "  buyers."  The  men- 
tal ages  found  for  these  groups  were  as  follows: 


9-7 
to 

10-7 
to 

11-7 
to 

12-7 
to 

13-7 
to 

14-7 

to 

15-7 

to 

16-7 
to 

17-7 
to 

Street-carmen.... 
Salesgirls 

10-6 

1 
2 

11-6 
3 
4 

12-6 
15 
14 

13-6 
19 
11 

14-6 
18 
g 

15-S 
14 
12 

16-6 

8 
3 

17-6 
3 
1 

18-6 
1 
1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

"Buyers"  

1 

2 

1 

Total   .  .  . 

3 

1 

29 

30 

26 

28 

19 

1 

4 

The  medians  were  as  follows: 

Street-car  men 13-8  (I  Q  85.6) 

Salesgirls 13-6  (I  Q  84.5) 

Engineers 16.0  (I  Q  100) 

Buyers 17.0  (I  Q  106) 

The  work  of  a  street-car  motorman  or  conductor 
rates  as  semi-skilled.  The  investigation  showed  that 
an  I  Q  of  80  to  90  is  entirely  satisfactory  for  this  kind 
of  work  provided  other  traits  are  favorable.  However, 
a  study  of  the  ratings  given  the  men  for  efficiency  indi- 
cated that  a  75  I  Q  is  an  unsafe  risk  either  for  motor- 
man or  conductor.  The  one  testing  lowest,  10-5, 1  Q 
65,  had  a  low  efficiency  rating l  and  at  the  time  of  the 
test  was  laid  off  because  of  a  serious  accident  caused 


1  Unfortunately  the  original  data  of  this  investigation  were  lost 
before  the  correlations  of  I  Q  with  ratings  could  be  computed. 


278    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

by  his  carelessness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  data 
suggested  that  intelligence  above  90  or  100  I  Q  adds 
nothing  to  the  efficiency  of  a  motorman  or  conductor, 
and  that  it  conduces  to  discontent.  Most  of  those  of 
highest  I  Q  stated  that  they  were  only  engaged  in  the 
work  because  of  bad  luck  or  unfavorable  labor  condi- 
tions and  that  they  looked  forward  to  getting  some- 
thing better.  Men  testing  around  80  or  85  usually 
seemed  contented  and  proud  of  their  jobs. 

The  work  done  by  the  salesgirls  would  rate  all  the 
way  from  unskilled  to  semi-skilled,  or  in  general 
slightly  lower  than  the  work  of  street-car  conductors 
and  motormen.  The  I  Q  distribution  for  salesgirls, 
however,  was  about  the  same  as  that  for  street-car 
men.  This  is  another  illustration  of  what  is  probably 
generally  true  in  our  present  industrial  organization, 
that  the  economic  situation  for  men  of  a  given  I  Q  is 
considerably  easier  than  for  women  of  the  same  intel- 
lectual ability.  The  data  for  motormen,  conductors, 
firemen,  and  policemen  indicate  that  an  I  Q  of  85 
among  men  receives  about  the  same  economic  rewards 
as  an  I  Q  of  100  to  120  among  women,  taking  the 
average  elementary  teacher,  or  high-grade  stenogra- 
pher as  typical  of  this  class. 

Business  men.  Knollin  and  Zeidler  tested  30  busi- 
ness men  of  moderate  success  and  limited  educational 
advantages.  The  subjects  were  typical  of  the  kind  of 
men  who  own  or  manage  the  ordinary  stores,  barber 
shops,  draying  business,  etc.,  in  a  small  town.  None 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      279 


had  graduated  from  a  high  school,  and  only  two  had 
attended  school  above  the  eighth  grade.  None  had 
accumulated  any  considerable  fortune,  and  none  had 
failed  outright  hi  business.  The  following  mental 
ages  were  found: 


Mental  ages.  .  . 
Number  

13  to  13-11 
1 

14  to  14-11 
6 

15  to  15-11 
7 

16  to  16-11 
8 

17  to  17-11 
6 

18  to  18-11 
2 

The  median  mental  age  was  16-2  (I  Q  102).  The 
lowest  fourth  were  below  15-0  (I  Q  93.6),  and  the 
highest  fourth  above  17.2  (I  Q  107).  The  only  indi- 
vidual testing  below  14  runs  a  successful  delicatessen 
establishment.  There  is  no  doubt  about  his  inferior 
intelligence  (I  Q  81),  but  he  is  exceptionally  industri- 
ous and  is  aided  by  a  wife  who  is  reputed  to  be  "  the 
brains  "  of  the  business.  This  was  the  only  I  Q  below 
88.  The  group  as  a  whole  presents  an  interesting  con- 
trast with  the  unskilled  and  semi-skilled  groups  tested 
by  Waugh  and  Flanders. 

Tests  of  college  students.  Stanford-Binet  tests 
were  given  under  the  direction  of  Coover  to  62  stu- 
dents in  a  psychology  class  at  Stanford  University. 
The  group  was  fairly  representative  of  the  student 
body  above  the  freshman  year.  The  distribution  of 
I  Q's  was  as  follows: 


I  Q's 

Number 

85-89 

90-94 
1 

95-99 
1 

100-104 
5 

105-109 
13 

110-114 
17 

115-119 
20 

120-122 
5 

280    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

The  median  I  Q  was  113.  One  fourth  tested  below 
108  and  one  fourth  above  1 17.  The  lowest  I  Q  was  94. 

Dr.  June  Downey  tested  42  freshmen  and  49  upper- 
classmen  of  the  University  of  Wyoming.1  The  me- 
dian scores  for  the  three  groups  were:  Freshmen, 
16-8  (I  Q  104);  upperclassmen,  17-2  (I  Q  108).  The 
I  Q  distribution  for  all  of  Dr.  Downey's  students  taken 
together  was  as  follows: 


IQ'fl 

Number 

85-89 
3 

90-94 
4 

95-99 

7 

100-104 
27 

105-109 
17 

110-114 
21 

115-119 
8 

120-122 
4 

Median 
106 

Dr.  Downey  found  for  the  members  of  her  psychol- 
ogy class  a  correlation  of  .52?  between  I  Q  and  her 
own  estimates  of  intelligence  (previously  made).  In 
regard  to  the  relative  accuracy  of  the  tests  and  her 
ratings,  Dr.  Downey  adds :  "  More  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  class  convinced  me,  moreover,  that  the 
I  Q's  were  much  more  accurate  than  my  unaided  judg- 
ment. In  a  number  of  instances  I  was  able  to  deter- 
mine just  the  factor  that  had  led  me  astray." 

In  a  majority  of  cases  the  results  of  the  tests  agreed 
fairly  well  with  class  marks.  Of  the  seven  freshmen 
who  tested  below  I  Q  94,  only  one  returned  for  work 
the  following  year.  "  This  is  her  third  year  in  the 
freshman  class,  a  hopeless  drifting  from  one  depart- 
ment to  another." 


1  Downey,  June  E.,  "The  Stanford  Adult  Intelligence  Tests,'* 
Journal  of  Delinquency,  1917,  pp.  144-55. 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      281 

As  would  be  expected,  some  students  did  much  bet- 
ter or  much  poorer  work  than  the  I  Q  would  suggest. 
The  following  are  typical  cases  of  such  disagreement : 

"  Young  man.  Passed  every  test  in  the  scale,  but 
is  noted  for  his  many  failures  in  courses.  His  reputa- 
tion in  college  is  that  of  a  young  man  of  ability  who 
chooses  to  turn  his  talents  in  other  than  academic 
directions." 

"A  girl,  whose  very  poor  work  led  us  to  expect  a 
record  very  much  lower  than  she  gave.  Shyness  and 
indifference  are,  I  believe,  the  cause  of  her  poor  work. 
A  little  extra  attention  in  class  convinced  me  of  the 
accuracy  of  the  test  results."  She  is  described  as 
having  ability  to  give  *  precise  and  brief  answers  to 
questions  "  and  to  "  hit  the  nail  on  the  head  once  her 
interest  is  aroused." 

The  tests  of  college  students  justify  the  conclusion 
that  the  student  bodies  of  colleges  and  universities  are 
recruited  mainly  from  those  whose  intelligence  is  con- 
siderably above  the  median  for  people  in  general.  This 
is  true  to  an  even  greater  extent  than  the  I  Q's  found 
would  indicate,  si/ice,  as  we  have  explained  elsewhere 
(p.  147)  the  Stanford-Binet  does  not  adequately  meas- 
ure adults  of  exceptionally  superior  ability.  In  all 
probability  the  large  majority  of  college  students 
would  as  children  in  the  grammar  grades  have  tested 
between  100  and  130,  with  a  median  of  perhaps  115 
to  120.  A  certain  number  would  probably  have 
tested  between  90  and  100,  but  the  chances  are  remote 


282    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


that  a  child  testing  much  below  90  will  ever  be  able  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  for  college  graduation.  Chil- 
dren who  test  below  100  should  ordinarily  not  be  en- 
couraged to  look  forward  to  entrance  into  law,  medi- 
cine, the  ministry,  engineering,  teaching,  or  any  other 
profession  which  demands  a  high  degree  of  ability  in 
abstract  or  conceptual  thinking.  Substantial  success 
in  such  professions  is  probably  achieved  only  by  indi- 
viduals above  the  115  or  120  I  Q  class. 

Tests  of  social  and  industrial  failures.  Knollin 
tested  154  "  migrating  unemployed  "  men  who  sought 
temporary  shelter  at  the  "  hobo  hotel "  of  Palo  Alto, 
California.  Many  of  these  were  tramps  by  profession ; 
some  were  merely  traveling  by  foot  to  other  parts  of 
the  State  in  search  of  employment.  The  mental  ages 
found  were  as  follows : 


Mental 

7  to 

8to 

9  to 

10  to 

11  to 

12  to 

13  to 

14  to 

15  to 

16  to 

17  to 

18  to 

ages 

7-11 

8-11 

9-11 

10-11 

11-11 

12-11 

13-11 

14-11 

15-11 

16-11 

17-11 

18-11 

Number 

1 

3 

4 

5 

16 

16 

27 

28 

24 

15 

10 

5 

The  median  mental  age  .was  14-2  (I  Q  89).  The 
lowest  25  per  cent  were  below  12-7  (I  Q  79),  the  high- 
est 25  per  cent  above  15-8  (I  Q  98). 

Johnson  gave  the  Stanford-Binet  tests  to  107  desti- 
tute men  picked  at  random  from  the  unemployed  cared 
for  by  various  social  service  organizations  in  Portland, 
Oregon.1  The  following  mental  ages  were  found: 

1  Johnson,  Glenn  R.,  "Unemployed  and  Feeble-Mindedness, " 
Journal  of  Delinquency,  1917,  pp.  59-73. 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      283 


7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1? 

13 

14 

1s; 

16 

17 

18 

19 

o 

0 

4 

7 

0 

9 

17 

19 

1*> 

10 

q 

9 

3 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  proportion  of  low-grade  cases 
is  larger  in  the  unemployed  groups  than  for  conductors, 
motormen,  salesgirls,  or  express  company  employees. 
About  5.5  per  cent  of  Johnson's  group  test  below  10 
years,  and  12  per  cent  below  11  years.  The  corre- 
sponding figure  for  Knollin's  group  are  5.2  per  cent 
and  8.4  per  cent.  However,  so  many  of  the  unem- 
ployed have  average  or  superior  intelligence  that  the 
median  mental  age  for  the  two  unemployed  groups 
combined  is  14-3,  and  the  median  I  Q  89.  This 
median  exceeds  that  found  for  street-car  men,  sales- 
girls and  the  San  Jose  civil  service  applicants,  but  is 
considerably  lower  than  the  median  for  business  men 
and  railroad  engineers. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  vocational  education  and 
vocational  guidance  the  above  facts  are  very  signifi- 
cant. Plainly,  unemployment  in  the  case  of  the  large 
majority  of  these  men  is  not  accounted  for  by  their 
lack  of  intelligence.  More  than  60  per  cent  had  intel- 
ligence fully  equal  to  that  of  the  average  of  the  82 
regularly  employed  street-car  employees.  At  least 
10  per  cent  of  them  were  the  intellectual  equals  of  the 
average  Stanford  University  student,  and  probably 
35  per  cent  were  intellectually  capable  of  graduating 
from  a  high  school. 

Even  prisoners  and  juvenile  delinquents,  among 


284    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

whom  the  proportion  of  feeble-mindedness  is  admit- 
tedly high,  are  more  often  than  not  well  within  the 
bounds  of  intellectual  normality.  From  the  scores  of 
studies  of  prison  and  reform-school  inmates,  the  data 
of  Williams  may  be  presented  as  typical.  The  men- 
tal ages  found  among  184  delinquent  youths  over  six- 
teen years  of  age  at  the  Whittier  State  School  were  as 
follows : 


Mental 

7  to 

8  to 

9  to 

10  to 

11  to 

12  to 

13  to 

14  to 

15  to 

16  to 

17  to 

18  to 

ages 

7-11 

8-11 

9-11 

10-11 

11-11 

12-11 

13-11 

14-11 

15-11 

16-11 

17-11 

18-11 

Delin- 

1 

3 

13 

28 

31 

33 

82 

16 

9 

12 

6 

The  median  mental  ages  for  these  delinquents  is 
12-6,  and  the  median  I  Q  78.  Probably  two  thirds 
of  the  entire  number  are  intelligent  enough  to  make 
good  unskilled  workers.  Similar  facts  were  found  in 
the  case  of  150  consecutive  entrants  at  the  San 
Quentin  State  Prison,  California,  who  were  tested  by 
Knollin.  Nearly  half  of  the  prisoners  were  equal  in 
intelligence  to  the  average  street-car  employee  (semi- 
skilled labor)  while  several  were  as  intelligent  as  the 
average  college  student. 

Those  who  have  made  psychological  studies  of  juve- 
nile delinquents,  prisoners,  and  the  unemployed  have 
placed  the  emphasis  upon  the  large  amount  of  feeble- 
mindedness found.  All  will  admit  that  a  large  propor- 
tion of  both  groups  are  defective  or  border-line  cases, 
-  perhaps  20  or  25  per  cent  of  prison  and  reform- 
school  inmates  and  possibly  10  per  cent  of  those  out  of 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      285 

employment  in  an  average  city  under  average  eco- 
nomic conditions.  It  would  be  a  serious  mistake, 
however,  if  our  concern  over  the  necessity  of  social 
control  for  defectives  should  lead  us  to  overlook  the 
large  majority  in  both  groups  who,  as  far  as  intelli- 
gence is  concerned,  may  be  considered  potential  social 
assets  of  great  value.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know 
to  what  extent  the  failure  of  such  individuals  could  be 
prevented  by  such  measures  as  vocational  education, 
vocational  guidance,  and  courses  of  study  sufficiently 
differentiated  to  fit  the  abilities  and  to  satisfy  the 
interests  of  all  the  children  who  are  above  the  dead- 
line of  mental  deficiency.  It  will  be  noted  that  45 
per  cent  of  Johnson's  unemployed  and  not  far 
from  70  per  cent  of  the  delinquents  fall  within  the 
range  70  to  89  I  Q.  This  is  the  range  which  fur- 
nishes the  majority  of  school  dullards.  When  we 
investigate  the  school  histories  of  men  who  test  be- 
tween 70  and  80  we  are  almost  certain  to  find  a  record 
of  low  marks,  failure,  and  serious  retardation.  Those  of 
the  80  to  90  class  have  usually  failed  less  seriously,  but 
have  rarely  shown  the  ability  to  get  much  beyond  the 
eighth  grade.  The  majority  of  the  70  to  85  class  have 
left  school  between  the  fifth  and  eighth  grade  with  little 
preparation  for  life  or  life's  work.  It  is  no  wonder  that 
many  fail  and  drift  easily  into  the  ranks  of  the  anti- 
social or  join  the  army  of  Bolshevik  discontents. 

For  convenience  the  I  Q  distributions  of  the  various 
vocational  groups  described  in  this  chapter  are  brought 


286    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


together  in  Table  40.  The  scores  of  6  railroad  engi- 
neers and  4  department-store  "  buyers  "  are  thrown  in 
with  those  of  Knollin's  30  business  men.  The  data 
for  Knollin's  hoboes  and  Johnson's  destitute  men  are 
also  combined,  as  the  I  Q  distributions  were  about  the 
same  for  the  two  groups.  For  each  group  the  median 
I  Q  is  given,  also  the  I  Q  which  marks  off  the  lowest 
fourth  of  those  in  the  group. 


Vocational 
group 

Per  cent  in  each  I  Q  group 

No. 

cases 

50- 
59 

60- 
69 

70- 
79 

80- 
89 

90- 
99 

100- 
109 

110- 
119 

120- 
122 

Me- 
dian 
I  Q 

Lowest 
fourth 
below 

College 
students  .  .  . 
Business 

153 

40 
47 

82 

30 
61 

256 

5.4 

4.3 
3.7 

6.7 

8.2 

14.1 

4.3 
23.1 

26.7 
29.5 

21.1 

1.9 

7.5 
23.4 

30.5 

36.7 
24.6 

26.9 

8.5 
37.5 
19.1 

32.9 

20. 
26.2 

16. 

40.5 
42.5 
19.1 

7.3 

6.7 
8.2 

9.7 

43.1 
12.5 
17.2 

2.4 

3.3 
3.3 

5-1 

5.9 
12.7 

1.1 

109 
102 
95 

86 

84 

85 

89 

104  I  Q 
97  IQ 
87  IQ 

79  I  Q 

78  I  Q 
77  I  Q 

71  I  Q 

Express 
employees 
Motormeu 
and  con- 
ductors   
Firemen 
and  police- 

Salesgirls... 
Hoboes  and 
unem- 
ployed   

TABLE  40.  1  Q  DISTRIBUTION  OF  VABIOUS  VOCATIONAL  GROUPS 

Educational  guidance.  In  vocational  guidance  the 
best  that  intelligence  tests  can  do  is  to  indicate  roughly 
the  vocational  level  in  which  success  is  possible.  The 
final  choice  of  a  vocation  must  be  determined  largely 
by  interest  and  opportunity.  For  all  we  know,  law, 
medicine,  engineering,  teaching  and  the  ministry  make 
about  equal  demands  upon  general  intelligence.  Per- 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      287 

haps  carpentry,  masonry,  plumbing,  blacksmithing, 
etc.,  require  about  the  same  amount  of  intelligence  as 
dozens  of  other  skilled  trades.  However,  intelligence 
tests  can  tell  us  whether  a  child's  native  ability  cor- 
responds approximately  to  the  median  found  in  the 
professions,  the  semi-professional  pursuits,  the  ordi- 
nary skilled  trades,  the  semi-skilled  trades,  among  un- 
skilled laborers,  etc.,  and  this  information  is  of  great 
value  in  planning  a  child's  education.  It  is  accord- 
ingly in  educational  guidance  that  intelligence  tests 
have  their  chief  value. 

Tables  28  to  35  (pp.  159-162)  have  shown  the  school 
progress  that  may  be  expected  of  various  grades  of 
intelligence,  and  the  facts  set  forth  in  other  chapters 
have  indicated  the  relation  of  intelligence  to  elimina- 
tion and  to  the  ability  to  master  high-school  or  college 
courses.  The  universal  testing  of  school  children 
would  save  many  a  disappointment.  A  certain  woman 
of  intelligence  and  education  has  a  daughter  who  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  years  tested  at  78,  and  was  still 
in  the  seventh  grade.  Yet  the  mother  had  not  given 
up  the  hope  that  the  daughter  might  become  a  sten- 
ographer. A  college  professor  with  a  twelve-year-old 
son  who  tested  at  83  was  planning  to  send  him  through 
college.  The  boy  will  be  fortunate  to  complete  the 
eighth  grade.  Such  children  are  sometimes  badgered 
and  urged  on  until  life  is  a  burden.  The  son  of  a  cer- 
tain lawyer  has  always  tested  at  80  to  85.  He  wishes 
to  become  a  gardener,  and  his  profitable  success  in 


288    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tilling  numerous  vacant  lots  sufficiently  attests  his 
ability  in  this  line.  The  father,  however,  insists  that 
his  son  must  have  a  college  education.  To  this  end 
he  scolds,  coaxes,  and  employs  private  tutors.  His 
best  efforts,  however,  have  only  brought  the  boy  to 
the  second  year  of  high  school  at  the  age  of  twenty 
years.  The  boy  comprehends  nothing  that  he  is 
taught  and  keenly  dislikes  school. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for 
exceptionally  bright  children  to  be  apprenticed  early 
to  occupations  which  require  but  mediocre  intelligence. 
Anything  above  85  I  Q  in  the  case  of  a  barber  probably 
represents  so  much  dead  waste;  yet  we  know  a  barber 
who  is  as  intelligent  as  the  average  college  student. 
Although  in  our  country  the  industrial  lines  of  cleav- 
age are  not  rigid  enough  to  prevent  ready  shift  from 
one  occupation  to  another,  provided  one  determines 
to  make  the  shift,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  after 
all,  men  are  largely  creatures  of  habit  and  after  a  cer- 
tain age  do  not  find  it  easy  to  adjust  to  the  require- 
ments of  a  new  vocation.  If  we  knew  the  total  waste 
of  mental  ability  we  should  probably  be  appalled.  The 
waste  is  probably  enormous  in  the  case  of  women, 
because  of  the  limited  number  of  vocational  oppor- 
tunities open  to  them. 

The  conservation  of  talent.  A  nation's  intellectual 
assets  are  the  most  precious  it  will  ever  have,  and  the 
principle  of  conservation  will  find  here  its  most  useful 
application. 


TESTS  AND  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE      289 

In  the  conservation  of  talent  the  teacher  occupies  a 
strategic  position.  It  is  her  duty  to  foster  in  a  pupil 
the  highest  ambitions  which  are  consonant  with  his 
intellectual  endowment.  To  expect  that  she  will  be 
able  to  estimate  a  pupil's  endowment  accurately 
enough  by  mere  observation  is  to  expect  too  much. 
We  have  known  so  many  bright  children  who  were 
seriously  underrated  by  their  teachers  that  the  neces- 
sity of  the  test  method,  as  a  supplement  to  observa- 
tion, seems  hardly  open  to  question.  If  tests  were 
more  commonly  given  we  should  probably  find  many 
children  like  the  following: 

A.  B.  was  twelve  years  old  and  in  the  sixth  grade. 
He  was  failing,  or  at  any  rate  his  work  was  unsatis- 
factory to  the  teacher.  As  a  matter  of  fact  she  did 
not  promote  him  at  the  end  of  the  term.  The  father 
consulted  Mr.  Virgil  E.  Dickson,  the  psychologist  of 
the  city  schools,  who  gave  the  boy  a  mental  test.  The 
I  Q  was  approximately  140.  Apparently  A.  B.  had  a 
grade  of  ability  not  equaled  by  more  than  one  child  in 
two  hundred.  Inquiry  disclosed  the  fact  that  the  boy 
had  formed  a  dislike  for  his  teacher.  This  teacher 
required  her  pupils  to  copy  from  the  dictionary  the 
definition  of  all  the  new  words  encountered  in  each 
lesson.  When  A.  B.  said  he  knew  all  the  words  she 
accused  him  of  untruthfulness.  In  reality  his  vocabu- 
lary was  equal  to  that  of  the  average  teacher.  The 
case  deserved  radical  treatment  and  got  it.  Mr.  Dick- 
son,  notwithstanding  the  boy's  non-promotion  in  the 


290    INTELLIGENCE  OF 'SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

sixth  grade,  arranged  for  him  to  skip  both  the  seventh 
and  the  eighth  grade  and  to  enter  high  school  immedi- 
ately! He  did  so,  and  passed  all  his  work  with  good 
marks.  For  some  months  his  teachers  were  not  told 
of  the  heresy  that  had  been  committed,  and  they  never 
'  suspected  that  the  pupil  had  not  come  to  them  in  the 
usual  way.  Cases  of  this  kind  suggest  an  Explanation 
fpr  the  traditional  but  incorrect  belief  that  a  majority 
of  great  men*and  women  were  dull  or  mediocre  in 
childhood. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  USE  OF  MENTAL 
TESTS * 

Teachers  must  learn  to  use  tests.  Unless  the  rank  , 
and  file  of  teachers  learn  to  use  tests  the  universal  .  , 
grading  of  children  according  to  mental  ability  wilfc* 
remain  largely  a  Utopian  dream.  We  cannot  agree 
with  those  who  hold  that  Binet  tests 'should  not  be 
attempted  by  teachers.  Teachers  are  universally 
encouraged  to  use  such  educational  measurements  as 
the  Courtis  tests,  handwriting  scales,  and  tests  of 
ability  in  reading,  history,  and  composition.  Yet,  it 
is  fully  as  difficult  to  learn  the  correct  procedure  for  a 
"  battery  "  of  six  or  eight  standard  educational  tests 
as  to  acquire  a  reasonable  facility  in  the  use  of  the 
Binet  scale.  It  should  be  emphasized,  however,  that 
wherever  possible  the  use  of  both  educational  and  in- 
telligence tests  should  be  supervised,  either  by  a  psy- 
chologist or  by  some  one  else  who  has  had  extended 
experience  in  their  use  and  in  the  interpretation  of 
results.  It  is  here  that  the  psychologist  finds  his 
proper  task,  rather  than  in  giving  the  tests  himself. 
The  public  school  psychologist,  for  example,  cannot 
himself  give  more  than  800  to  1000  Binet  tests  in  a 

1  See  also  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence 
(Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  191C);  pp.  362. 


292    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

school  year,  but  he  can  supervise  the  testing  and 
grading  of  10,000  by  taking  advantage  of  the  help 
which  teachers  can  give.  This  method  not  only  in- 
creases the  number  of  pupils  who  will  be  graded  more 
nearly  in  accordance  with  their  abilities;  it  also  effec- 
tively stimulates  the  teacher's  interest  in  her  children. 

Preparation  needed  for  Binet  testing.  However, 
no  one  should  attempt  to  use  the  Binet  scale  without 
careful  preparation.  The  training  needed  can  be 
given  effectively  in  the  normal  school.  A  half-year 
course  of  three  lessons  per  week,  or  a  somewhat  shorter 
course  with  five  lessons  per  week,  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose if  it  is  properly  supplemented  by  other  courses 
in  educational  psychology.  Such  a  course  should  (1) 
introduce  the  student  to  the  nature  and  extent  of 
individual  differences  among  children;  (2)  show  the 
bearing  of  these  upon  school  grading;  (3)  explain  the 
fundamental  principles  underlying  intelligence  test- 
ing; and  (4)  give  a  fair  degree  of  mastery  of  the  Binet 
procedure.  The  use  of  at  least  one  scale  for  group  test- 
ing should  also  be  taught.  The  course  should  include 
actual  testing  by  the  student  as  well  as  demonstration 
tests.  Courses  of  this  kind  should  be  considered  an 
indispensable  part  of  the  normal-school  curriculum. 

Meanwhile,  what  about  the  teacher  in  service  who 
has  not  had  the  advantage  of  such  instruction?  Must 
she  continue  to  rely  on  guesswork  for  the  classifica- 
tion of  her  pupils?  A  fairly  extended  experience  has 
convinced  us  that  this  is  not  necessary.  With  a  little 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  293 

help  the  average  teacher  can  prepare  herself  to  use 
standardized  mental  tests  accurately  enough  for  prac- 
tical purposes.  If  there  is  a  psychologist  in  the  school 
system  the  problem  can  be  solved  by  forming  Saturday 
or  afternoon  classes  for  giving  the  needed  instruction. 
If  no  psychologist  is  available,  some  one  else  can  often 
be  found  in  the  school  system  who  is  capable  of 
directing  the  work,  perhaps  the  director  of  special 
classes,  or  a  principal  who  has  had  some  training  in 
the  use  of  tests.  A  six- weeks  course  in  a  summer  ses- 
sion of  a  normal  school  or  university  will  also  provide 
the  necessary  training. 

How  to  learn  the  Binet  procedure  without  instruc- 
tion. If  no  help  is  available  the  earnest  teacher  need 
not  hesitate  to  undertake  the  task  alone.  It  is  best  to 
begin  by  first  mastering  the  contents  of  two  or  three 
books  dealing  with  individual  differences  and  the 
principles  of  mental  testing.  Then  the  Binet  pro- 
cedure should  be  carefully  studied.  Merely  to  read 
through  a  description  of  the  tests  is  not  sufficient. 
The  directions  should  be  studied  with  the  closest 
attention  to  the  finer  details  of  procedure,  and  to  the 
method  of  scoring,  computing  mental  age,  etc.  The 
significance  of  mental  age  as  a  basis  of  school  grading 
and  of  the  I  Q  for  forecasting  a  child's  later  develop- 
ment should  receive  special  attention.  Actual  testing 
may  then  be  begun,  preferably  with  the  help  of  the 
Record  Booklet  prepared  for  use  with  the  Stanford- 
Binet  Scale.  This  contains  appropriate  spaces  for 


294    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

the  verbatim  recording  of  results,  and  gives  abbrevi- 
ated directions  for  scoring.  It  also  saves  memory 
strain  and  prevents  error  by  supplying  the  exact  word- 
ing for  many  of  the  tests. 

After  testing  one  or  two  children  the  instructions 
should  be  read  through  again,  and  each  step  in  the 
procedure  noted.  This  always  brings  certain  points 
into  relief  which  have  escaped  notice.  By  thus 
checking  up  her  procedure  after  each  test  the  teacher 
will  acquire  a  sureness  and  a  degree  of  accuracy  which 
nothing  else  can  give.  After  fifteen  or  twenty  tests 
the  mental  age  secured  should  be  substantially  the 
same  as  a  trained  psychologist  would  get,  assuming 
that  the  teacher  has  studied  the  directions  with  con- 
scientious care  and  has  learned  not  to  take  liberties 
with  them. 

It  is  necessary  to  understand,  from  the  very  begin- 
ning, that  an  apparently  trivial  alteration  of  a  test 
may  so  change  its  nature  as  to  invalidate  the  results. 
The  formula  for  each  test  should  be  adhered  to  strictly. 
Questions  should  ordinarily  not  be  repeated  except 
when  the  instructions  indicate  that  it  is  permissible 
to  do  so.  It  is  necessary  to  avoid  leading  questions 
and  other  forms  of  unintentional  aid.  If  the  child's 
answer  is  not  clear,  the  question  "  What  do  you  mean?  " 
is  usually  sufficient  and  is  practically  the  only  form  of 
supplementary  question  allowable. 

A  free  and  easy  manner  with  the  child  should  be 
assiduously  cultivated.  Timidity  must  be  overcome 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  295 

so  that  the  child  will  do  his  best  without  undue  coax- 
ing. If  the  child's  confidence  is  to  be  gained,  it  is 
necessary  to  take  his  efforts  seriously,  however  absurd 
they  may  appear.  Attention  should  never  be  called 
to  errors.  Apart  from  such  some  vague  commenda- 
tion as  "  You  have  done  beautifully,"  etc.,  the  child 
should  be  told  nothing  of  the  result  of  the  test. 

The  examination  should  be  thorough.  It  should 
extend  down  the  scale  far  enough  to  include  at  least 
one  year  in  which  there  is  no  failure,  and  up  far  enough 
to  include  at  least  a  year  in  which  there  is  no  success. 
By  using  only  the  six  regular  tests  in  each  year  the 
examination  can  ordinarily  be  completed  in  thirty  to 
forty  minutes  with  younger  subjects,  or  in  fifty  minutes 
with  older  ones.  With  subjects  of  the  high-school 
level  a  little  more  time  is  occasionally  necessary.  At 
first  the  time  is  prolonged  by  the  recording  of  replies, 
which  should  always  be  done  as  nearly  as  possible 
verbatim.  A  little  experience  and  the  liberal  use  of 
abbreviations  soon  enables  one  to  do  this  without 
retarding  the  examination  appreciably. 

Learning  to  score.  The  responses,  if  recorded, 
should  be  scored  immediately  after  the  examination 
has  been  completed.  If  responses  are  not  recorded, 
the  scoring  must  be  done  as  the  examination  proceeds. 
Wherever  there  is  the  slightest  doubt  as  to  the  satis- 
factoriness  of  a  response,  the  guide  should  be  consulted 
and  followed.  Since  the  scale  has  been  standardized 
on  a  definite  basis  of  scoring,  it  is  evident  that  unless 


296    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

this  rule  is  adhered  to,  the  resulting  mental  age  and 
I  Q  lose  their  significance.  The  teacher  must  learn 
to  suppress  her  personal  judgment  as  to  how  a  test 
ought  to  be  given  or  scored,  and  to  ask  only  the  ques- 
tion how  it  is  given.  With  conscientious  effort  the 
errors  of  scoring  can  soon  be  reduced  to  a  reasonable 
minimum. 

If  a  psychologist  is  available,  the  teacher's  scoring 
should  be  checked  up  from  the  written  responses  until 
the  right  habits  have  been  thoroughly  established. 
This  is  the  method  followed  by  Dickson,  who  writes 
as  follows  regarding  the  errors  made  by  twenty-one 
Oakland  teachers  in  scoring  several  hundred  tests : 

"Before  the  testing  was  begun,  six  lessons  of  1^  hours  each 
were  given.  Each  teacher  then  tested  her  own  pupils,  and 
graded  and  marked  her  own  tests.  I  then  graded  the  tests 
myself,  with  the  following  results : 

No  correction  of  mental  age  necessary  68 . 2  per  cent 

Correction  of  2  months 20 . 4  per  cent 

Correction  of  4  months 10 . 8  per  cent 

Correction  of  6  months 0.6  per  cent" 

This  excellent  record  is  explained  in  part  by  the  fact 
that  the  subjects  were  all  first-grade  pupils,  so  that  the 
teachers  were  not  compelled  to  learn  the  procedure 
and  scoring  for  the  tests  below  four  years  or  above 
ten.  It  will  be  noted  that  hardly  any  errors  necessi- 
tated a  correction  of  more  than  4  months  in  mental 
age.  For  the  average  first-grade  child  an  error  of  this 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  297 

amount  would  affect  the  I  Q  to  the  extent  of  only  5 
points. 

We  have  elsewhere  reported  the  errors  of  five  univer- 
sity students  in  scoring  843  Binet  tests.1  The  mental 
ages  as  computed  by  the  students  were  correct 

within  2  months  in  84.8  per  cent  of  cases; 
within  4  months  in  95.5  per  cent  of  cases; 
within  6  months  in  98.6  per  cent  of  cases. 

The  average  error  in  I  Q  was  about  1  point.  Approxi- 
mately one  third  of  the  necessary  corrections  were  due 
to  arithmetical  mistakes  in  counting  the  number  of 
"plus'*  marks,  adding  months  of  credit,  or  dividing 
mental  age  by  chronological  age.  Practically  all  of 
the  errors  of  more  than  6  months  in  mental  age,  or  of 
more  than  5  to  8  points  in  I  Q,  were  of  this  preventable 
kind.  The  counting  and  adding  of  credits  and  the  divi- 
sion for  I  Q  should  always  be  done  twice  for  each  sub- 
ject. 

Tabulation  of  the  errors  in  scoring  the  separate 
tests  in  the  scale  showed  that  two  tests  were  responsi- 
ble for  30  per  cent  of  the  errors.  These  were  the  ball 
and  field  test  and  the  description  and  interpretation 
of  pictures.  Others  which  gave  rise  to  frequent  errors 
were  the  following :  —  definitions  by  use  and  superior 
to  use,  interpretation  of  fables,  the  comprehension 
questions,  the  diamond,  designs,  and  definitions  of  ab- 

1  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  "Errors  in  Scoring  Binet  Tests,"  The 
Psychological  Clinic,  1918,  pp.  33-39. 


298    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

stract  terms.  The  directions  set  forth  in  The  Meas- 
urement of  Intelligence  for  scoring  these  tests  should 
be  consulted  again  and  again  until  they  have  been 
thoroughly  mastered. 

The  interpretation  and  use  of  results.  To  acquire  a 
reasonable  degree  of  expertness  in  giving  Binet  tests  is 
a  much  simpler  matter  than  to  learn  how  to  interpret 
and  use  the  results.  We  have  written  this  book  prima- 
rily to  show  concretely  the  significance  of  mental  age 
and  intelligence  quotient  in  the  grading  of  school  chil- 
dren. While  its  careful  study  should  aid  the  amateur 
to  avoid  gross  errors  in  the  use  of  results,  there  is 
much  which  experience  alone  can  bring  and  much 
which  only  those  of  psychological  training  can  ac- 
quire. In  cities  which  employ  a  school  psychologist 
the  problem  is  simple  enough;  the  teachers  can  make 
the  tests  and  leave  it  to  the  psychologist  to  interpret 
the  results  and  to  utilize  them  in  the  classification 
of  children.  If  there  is  no  recognized  expert  in  the 
school  system  the  teacher  must  work  with  caution. 
She  must  learn  to  consider  her  interpretation  of  the 
test  in  a  tentative  light,  and  must  avoid  the  risk  of 
passing  judgment  in  doubtful  or  apparently  patho- 
logical cases.  She  must  understand  clearly  that  the 
mere  ability  to  give  a  Binet  test  acceptably  gives  her 
no  claim  to  the  title  "  clinical  psychologist."  If  she  will 
use  the  test  simply  as  a  means  of  getting  a  more  ac- 
curate idea  of  a  child's  mental  ability  than  she  could 
get  in  any  other  way,  she  will  be  amply  rewarded. 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  299 

For  obvious  reasons  the  teacher  should  use  discretion 
in  talking  about  the  results  of  the  tests.  That  the 
child  should  not  be  told  his  mental  age  or  I  Q  has  al- 
ready been  emphasized.  The  teacher  will  also  find 
that  it  is  generally  unwise  to  discuss  the  test  results 
with  parents  in  very  specific  terms.  Such  expressions 
as  "exceptionally  bright,"  "mentally  retarded,"  or 
"slow  to  learn,"  are  usually  harmless;  but  expressions 
like  "dullard,"  "feeble-minded,"  "border-line,"  etc., 
should  be  avoided.  Even  if  the  parents  know  the  child 
to  be  feeble-minded  they  resent  the  teacher's  saying 
so,  justly  feeling  that  the  diagnosis  of  mental  defect 
is  not  within  her  province.  This  is  the  rule,  'but  of 
course  there  are  exceptions.  The  tactful  teacher  who 
has  the  confidence  of  the  mother  can  sometimes  talk 
with  her  quite  frankly  about  the  defects  of  her  chil- 
dren. The  teacher's  attitude  should  always  be  one  of 
sympathetic  helpfulness.  Levity  or  cynical  remarks 
about  the  dullness  of  a  pupil  should  always  be  avoided. 
It  is  best  not  to  discuss  I  Q's  and  mental  ages  of  in- 
dividual pupils  too  freely  among  acquaintances  or 
even  among  colleagues.  One  never  knows  when  or 
where  a  chance  remark  will  be  repeated. 

Above  all,  the  teacher  must  learn  not  to  interpret 
the  results  of  her  tests  too  literally  and  not  to  depend 
upon  them  too  exclusively.  The  child  is  not  all  intel- 
ligence; his  fitness  to  take  up  the  work  of  a  given  grade 
is  determined  partly  by  such  factors  as  health,  indus- 
try, attitude  toward  school  work,  and  regularity  of  at- 


300    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tendance.  Immediate  and  wholesale  re-grading  of  the 
school  on  the  basis  of  mental  age  as  soon  as  the  tests 
have  been  completed  is  not  recommended.  It  is  best 
to  begin  with  individual  children  who  are  most  seriously 
misplaced,  especially  the  very  bright,  who  are  nearly 
always  one  or  two  grades  below  where  they  belong. 
As  one  after  another  of  these  is  found  to  continue  to 
do  good  work  after  extra  promotions,  the  teacher  will 
gradually  acquire  confidence  in  her  judgment  and  in 
the  verdict  of  the  tests. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  avoid  the  danger  of  mak- 
ing a  fetich  of  the  I  Q,  which  we  have  shown  to  be  by 
no  means  infallible.  An  I  Q  of  85,  for  example,  means 
no  more  nor  less  than  that  the  child  tested  later  will 
probably  be  found  between  80  and  90.  It  does  not 
mean  that  he  may  not  later  test  as  high  as  100  or  as 
low  as  70,  although  the  chances  are  roughly  22  to  1 
against  his  doing  so.  Because  of  the  possibility  of  such 
errors,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  check  up  the  results 
of  the  tests  in  every  possible  way.  The  test  should 
mark  the  beginning,  not  the  end,  of  the  teacher's 
study  of  a  given  child.  As  a  point  of  departure  the 
intelligence  test  is  of  great  value;  accepted  as  a  final 
verdict  it  may  lead  to  mistakes  and  disappointment. 
Children  who  cannot  do  the  school  work  within  at  least 
one  year  of  that  corresponding  to  mental  age  should  be 
studied.  Usually  a  reason  will  be  found.  Perhaps  the 
child  lacks  self-confidence.  Possibly  because  of  timid- 
ity his  school  work  has  not  shown  up  at  its  full  value. 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  301 

Perhaps  there  has  been  lack  of  application.  What- 
ever explanation  is  found,  the  teacher  will  understand 
the  child  in  a  way  that  would  never  have  been  possible 
without  the  insight  which  the  test  gives.  Cases  which 
continue  doubtful  or  puzzling  should  be  re-tested. 

The  use  of  supplementary  data.  Before  beginning 
her  tests  the  teacher  should  secure  the  following  data 
for  each  child: 

1.  Age,  in  years  and  months; 

2.  Years  in  school; 

3.  Record  of  illnesses; 

4.  Nationality  of  each  parent; 

5.  Occupation  which  supports  the  family; 

6.  Data  regarding  the  child's  brothers  and  sisters. 

It  also  greatly  enhances  the  value  of  test  results  if 
these  can  be  compared  with  ratings  based  on  observa- 
tion. For  this  purpose  the  teacher  should  rate  each  of 
her  pupils  for  quality  of  school  work,  general  intelli- 
gence, and  two  or  three  personal  traits  like  dependa- 
bility, social  adaptability,  conscientiousness,  etc.  The 
ratings  should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  either  a  five- 
fold or  seven-fold  classification,  as  follows : 

Five-fold  classification  Seven-fold  classification 

1.  Very  superior  1.  Very  superior 

2.  Superior  2.  Superior 

3.  Average  3.  High  average 

4.  Inferior  4.  Average 

5.  Very  inferior  5.  Low  average 

6.  Inferior 

7.  Very  inferior 


302    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

•  The  ratings  should,  of  course,  be  made  In  advance 
of  the  tests,  in  order  that  they  may  represent  an  inde- 
pendent judgment.  Their  comparison  later  with  the 
test  results  will  prove  of  surpassing  interest.  One  pu- 
pil tests  lower  than  he  was  rated,  another  higher. 
Why  the  discrepancy?  In  solving  such  problems,  a 
good  many  of  which  are  sure  to  arise  in  the  testing  of 
forty  pupils,  the  teacher  will  gain  an  insight  into  the 
mentality  and  character  of  her  children  that  will  richly 
repay  her  for  the  somewhat  difficult  task  of  making 
the  ratings. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  especially  interesting  and 
instructive  to  compare  her  trait  ratings  with  the  I  Q's 
later  found  in  the  tests.  By  doing  so  she  will  seethe 
close  correlation  which  usually  exists  between  desira- 
ble traits.  Notwithstanding  occasional  exceptions  to 
the  rule,  she  will  find  that  usually  the  child  she  has 
rated  high  in  conscientiousness,  obedience,  will  power, 
sense  of  humor,  etc.,  will  earn  a  high  I  Q  in  the  Binet 
test;  the  child  she  has  rated  low,  an  inferior  I  Q.1  In 
this  way  she  will  come  to  appreciate  the  close  connec- 
tion which  often  exists  between  unsatisfactory  conduct 
and  inferior  intelligence.  In  connection  with  the  other 
supplementary  information  the  teacher  will  find  it  in- 
structive to  compare  the  I  Q  of  the  various  nationali- 
ties and  occupational  groups  represented  in  her  class. 

The  Providence  example.  The  city  of  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  offers  an  excellent  illustration  of  what 
1  See  Figures  15,  16,  and  17,  p.  59. 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  303 

may  be  accomplished  by  training  teachers  in  the  use  of 
mental  tests.  Under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  Richard  D. 
Allen,  Director  of  Vocational  Guidance,  and  of  Miss 
Greene,  Supervisor  of  Primary  Instruction,  large  num- 
bers of  the  teachers  of  that  city  have  been  taught  to 
give  Binet  tests.  The  instruction  is  given  in  a  four- 
weeks  course  in  the  summer  normal  school,  and  in- 
cludes twenty  practice  tests.  A  teachers'  club  of  two 
hundred  members  has  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  the  grading  of  school  children  by  mental 
ability.  Miss  Greene's  work  in  testing  first-grade  chil- 
dren has  already  been  mentioned.1  Mr.  Allen  has 
kindly  sent  us  the  following  information  regarding 
this  experiment: 

I  found  that  at  the  beginning  of  my  work  with  the  tests 
there  were  a  great  many  puzzling  things.  For  example,  I 
occasionally  found  pupils  who  tested  low  and  were  never- 
theless doing  fair  work.  In  such  cases  when  I  took  the 
mental  age  into  account  I  usually  found  that  this  was  above 
the  mental  age  of  the  children  with  whom  they  were  com- 
peting. The  facts  were  then  easy  to  explain.  I  have  yet  to 
find  a  single  case  of  the  two  thousand  tests  we  have  made  in 
which  the  I  Q  and  mental  age  do  not  throw  valuable  light 
upon  the  reasons  for  success  or  failure. 

Our  tests  show  that  90  per  cent,  at  least,  of  school  retarda- 
tion is  without  doubt  due  to  mental  inferiority.  There  are 
very  few  seriously  retarded  children  who  do  not  do  satis- 
factory work  in  school  when  they  are  placed  in  a  grade  which 
corresponds  to  mental  age.  One  of  the  results  of  placing 
children  of  the  same  mental  age  together  has  been  the  cut- 
ting down  of  failures  by  fully  50  per  cent. 
1  Page  64. 


304    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

We  have  arranged  to  give  an  intelligence  test  to  every 
child  who  leaves  school  to  go  to  work,  and  we  use  the  test 
in  determining  roughly  the  limits  of  the  child's  vocational 
possibilities.  We  have  found,  for  example,  that  retarded 
boys  who  drop  out  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade  because  of  lack 
of  ability  to  do  the  work  often  succeed  well  at  painting  or 
plain  carpentry.  The  boys  who  test  higher  have,  of  course, 
a  wider  range  of  vocational  possibilities. 

Concerning  one  group  of  1016  children  whose  men- 
tal test  and  school  work  had  been  compared,  Mr. 
Allen  presents  the  following  facts  : 

1.  Of  sixty-seven  who  tested  below  70  I  Q,  sixty-three 
made  an  average  school  mark  of  D  or  E.    Of  two  hun- 
dred who  tested  above  110 1  Q,  only  four  had  an  average 
school  mark  as  low  as  D. 

2.  Of  the  sixty-nine  pupils  testing  below  70,  all  except 
seven  were  located  in  a  grade  above  that  corresponding 
to  mental  age.     Of  eighty-four  pupils  testing  above 
120,  every  one  was  located  in  a  grade  below  that  cor- 
responding to  mental  age.      Many  were  below-grade 
as  much  as  three,  four,  or  five  years. 

3.  Of  one  hundred  and  three  children  who  are  located  in  a 
grade  either  one  and  a  half  or  two  years  above  that  cor- 
responding to  mental  age,  over  90  per  cent  are  failures. 

4.  A  great  majority  of  the  children  who  test  under  90 
I  Q  never  graduate  from  the  grammar  school. 

5.  There  is  clearly  a  very  close  relation  between  the  place- 
ment of  a  child  in  school  and  the  quality  of  work  he  is 
able  to  perform.     Scholarship  plus  chronological  age 
plus  the  grade  in  which  a  child  is  located  gives  a  fairly 
good  basis  for  estimating  the  child's  mental  age.    Con- 
versely, the  I  Q  plus  the  mental  age  plus  the  grade 
gives  a  fairly  clear  estimate  of  the  quality  of  the  work 
which  the  child  should  be  able  to  do. 


\ 

THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  305 

Getting  the  testing  done.  The  earlier  in  the  term 
the  tests  are  made  the  greater  their  value.  Since  the 
testing  must  ordinarily  be  done  out  of  school  hours,  it  is 
likely  to  be  two  or  three  months  before  the  teacher  can 
complete  her  "  pupil  survey."  One  test  each  afternoon 
will  dispose  of  the  difficult  cases  within  a  few  weeks, 
and  of  the  entire  class  in  a  month  or  two.  Sometimes 
Saturdays  can  be  utilized  to  advantage  by  making 
special  appointments  with  pupils  to  come  to  the  school 
for  the  purpose.  Children  invariably  like  to  be  tested, 
and  are  always  willing  to  forego  an  hour  of  play  for  the 
experience.  The  teacher  will  not  long  regard  the  work 
as  an  additional  burden.  The  interest  in  seeing  how  the 
different  children  respond  to  the  same  tests  grows  to  the 
point  of  fascination.  The  work  is  also  made  easier  by 
noting  how  the  experience  adds  to  the  pupil's  feeling  of 
intimacy  toward  the  teacher.  To  test  a  child  skillfully 
nearly  always  means  to  win  a  devoted  little  friend. 

The  tests  should  be  made,  however,  even  though 
they  can  only  come  at  the  middle  or  end  of  the  term, 
as  the  results  can  be  used  to  great  advantage  in  decid- 
ing doubtful  cases  of  promotion  or  double-promotion. 
The  teacher  should  record  the  results  in  full  for  each 
child  in  a  little  book  to  be  kept  in  her  desk  for  handy 
reference.  The  record  should  include,  after  the  child's 
name,  the  age  (in  years  and  months),  the  mental  age, 
the  I  Q,  the  nationality  of  each  parent,  the  occupation 
that  supports  the  home,  and  the  various  ratings  on 
school  work,  intelligence,  and  other  traits.  If  educa- 


306    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

tional  tests  have  been  given,  the  results  of  these  should 
be  recorded  here  also.  The  teacher  who  keeps  such  a 
record  will  soon  come  to  look  upon  it  as  indispensable. 

The  testing  should  be  carried  on  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  excite  undue  comment  among  the  pupils.  The 
teacher  will,  of  course,  refrain  from  speaking  of  the 
tests  as  "  intelligence  tests."  She  may  refer  to  them 
merely  as  "  tests  to  see  what  children  can  do."  She 
can  avoid  creating  apprehension  by  beginning  with  the 
brightest  pupils.  She  will  thus  prevent  the  idea  get- 
ting abroad  that  to  be  given  a  test  means  to  be  sus- 
pected of  mental  inferiority.  It  is  never  advisable  or 
necessary  to  test  a  child  against  his  will.  After  a  few 
have  been  given  a  test  the  others  are  invariably  anx- 
ious to  have  the  same  privilege. 

The  use  of  abbreviated  tests.  When  possible  each 
child  should  be  given  a  complete  Binet  test,  but  if 
time  does  not  permit  this  the  teacher  can  make  a  fairly 
satisfactory  survey  of  her  pupils  by  means  of  an  ab- 
breviated form  of  the  scale  which  requires  no  more 
than  ten  to  twenty  minutes  per  pupil,  according  to 
the  form  of  abbreviation  used.  Although  the  brief 
test  falls  a  good  deal  short  of  the  complete  test  in  re- 
liability, it  is  far  better  than  nothing. 

The  following  abbreviations  of  the  Stanford  Revi- 
sion will  be  found  serviceable: 

1.  The  four  tests  of  each  year  group  (six  in  year  12)  indi- 
cated in  the  record  booklet  by  stars.  Time  required, 
approximately  30  minutes. 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  307 

2.  Any  three  tests  chosen  at  random  from  each  year  group 
(but  four  in  year  12).   Time,  approximately  20  minutes. 

3.  The  vocabulary  test  alone.    Time,  8  to  10  minutes. 

When  fewer  than  the  regular  number  of  tests  are 
used  in  a  year  group  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  increase 
the  value  of  each  test  in  months  in  proportion  to  the 
reduction  of  number.  In  the  year  groups  below  12, 
each  test  has  a  value  of  2  months  when  all  six  are  used 
in  each  year,  of  3  months  when  four  tests  are  used, 
and  of  4  months  when  only  three  tests  are  used.  The 
same  principle  holds  in  the  upper  part  of  the  scale. 
In  year  12,  for  example,  each  test  has  a  value  of  3 
months  when  all  eight  are  given,  of  4  months  when 
six  are  given,  and  of  6  months  when  four  are  given. 
Perhaps  the  surest  way  to  avoid  errors  of  weighting 
tests  is  to  follow  the  rule  of  giving  either  all  the  regular 
tests  or  only  half  of  them  in  each  year.  If  only  half 
are  given,  the  regular  weighting  would  of  course  be 
doubled  and  the  tests  of  the  different  year  groups 
would  have  values  as  follows: 

Years  I  to  X 4  months 

Year  XII 6  months 

Year  XIV 8  months 

Year  XVI 10  months 

Year  XVIII 12  months 

This  form  of  abbreviation  can  be  given  to  younger 
children  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.  Either  the  first 
half  of  the  tests  can  be  given  in  each  year  group,  or 
they  can  be  selected  according  to  the  limitations  of 


308    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

time  or  the  preference  of  the  examiner.  Otis1  has  de- 
termined statistically  the  reliability  of  either  half  of 
the  Stanford-Binet  Scale,  when  it  is  thus  split  in  two 
vertically.  His  study  shows  the  probable  error  of  an 
I  Q  to  be  about  4.5  points  when  half  the  scale  is  used 
and  about  3  points  when  all  of  it  is  used.  This  means 
that  in  fifty  per  cent  of  the  cases  the  I  Q  found  when 
half  the  scale  is  used  would  fall  within  the  range  of  4j 
points  above  or  4|  points  below  the  true  I  Q;  and  that 
the  I  Q  found  when  the  entire  scale  is  used  is  in  fifty 
per  cent  of  cases  within  the  range  of  3  points  above  or 
3  points  below  the  true  I  Q.  Half  the  scale  is  thus 
accurate  enough  for  most  practical  purposes. 

The  vocabulary  test  as  a  brief  intelligence  scale. 
Where  a  hasty  preliminary  sifting  of  the  pupils  is 
necessary  it  is  recommended  that  the  vocabulary  test 
be  used  by  itself.  It  should  be  given  to  one  child  at 
a  time,  taken  alone,  and  requires  on  an  average  only 
about  eight  or  ten  minutes.  If  the  complete  Binet 
test  is  given  later  the  vocabulary  scores  can  be  added 
in  and  no  time  will  have  been  lost. 


7 

8 

q 

10 

11 

1? 

13 

14 

1fi 

18 

17 

18 

19 

Median  vocabu- 

lary  

13 

18 

23 

30 

35 

41 

46 

51 

57 

62 

67 

73 

75 

On  the  basis  of  the  above  mental  age  standards, 
the  Stanford  vocabulary  test  gives  a  mental  age  cor- 


1  Otis," Arthur  S.,  "The  Reliability  of  the  Binet  Scale,"  The  Psy- 
chological Clinic,  1919. 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  309 

rect  within  one  year  in  about  60  per  cent  of  cases,  and 
within  a  year  and  a  half  in  80  per  cent  of  cases. 

The  teacher  will  doubtless  be  surprised  that  any 
single  test  requiring  only  ten  minutes  could  possess 
this  degree  of  accuracy.  One  might  very  well  sup- 
pose that  the  child's  vocabulary  would  depend  upon 
home  environment  and  formal  instruction,  that  it 
would  be  an  index  of  special  rather  than  general  abil- 
ity, and  that  anyway  it  could  not  be  accurately  enough 
measured  by  a  list  of  100  words  selected  at  random 
from  the  dictionary.  As  we  have  shown  elsewhere, 
all  of  these  theoretical  objections  are  contradicted  by 
the  facts.1 

That  it  measures  general  intelligence  rather  than 
special  ability  is  shown  by  the  high  correlation  of 
vocabulary  score  with  Stanford-Binet  mental  ages. 
Table  41  shows  that  the  correlation  for  631  school 
children  was  .91. 

The  probable  error  of  a  mental  age  based  on  the 
vocabulary  score  alone  is  approximately  9|  months. 
This  means  that  50  per  cent  of  the  vocabulary  mental 
ages  would  deviate  less  than  9|  months  from  the 
mental  age  resulting  from  a  complete  Stanford-Binet 
test.  It  would  deviate  more  than  12  months  in  only 
40  per  cent  of  cases  and  more  than  24  months  in  only 
10  per  cent  of  cases. 

1  Terman,  Lewis  M.,  Kohs,  S.  C.,  and  others:  "The  Vocabulary 
Test  as  a  Measure  of  Intelligence,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychol- 
ogy, October,  1918. 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  311 

The  vocabulary  is  much  less  influenced  by  the  cul- 
tural status  of  the  home  than  one  would  expect.  The 
following  illustration  is  typical:  A.  B.,  the  feeble- 
minded son  of  a  college  professor,  is  14  years  old  and 
tests  at  the  mental  age  of  11  by  the  Stanford-Binet. 
His  vocabulary  score  alone  indicated  a  mental  age  of 
11-4.  The  exceptional  language  environment  of  this 
boy  had  raised  his  vocabulary  only  a  third  of  a  year 
above  his  general  mental  level.  The  influence  of 
exceptionally  poor  language  environment  is  also  very 
slight.  E.  is  a  Portuguese  boy  whose  parents  speak 
only  broken  English.  This  boy,  the  brightest  we  have 
tested  from  a  Portuguese  family,  tested  at  the  mental 
age  of  18-6  when  he  was  14-5  chronologically.  His 
vocabulary  score  (70  words)  was  equal  to  the  median 
for  first-year  college  students.  The  extreme  poverty 
of  his  language  environment  had  not  prevented  his 
vocabulary  from  keeping  pace  with  his  general  level 
of  intelligence. 

A  vocabulary  test  of  100  words  is  sufficient  to  meas- 
ure an  individual's  total  vocabulary  very  accurately. 
When  several  different  word  lists  of  this  kind  are  used 
with  the  same  subject  they  give  approximately  the 
same  result.  The  probable  error  of  a  vocabulary 
score  for  a  100  word  list  is  about  2  words,  and  since 
each  word  in  the  list  represents  180  words  in  the  dic- 
tionary, the  probable  error  of  total  vocabulary  based 
on  the  test  is  360  words.  For  example,  if  a  subject 
defines  40  words  correctly  his  total  vocabulary  figures 


312    INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

at  40  X  ISO,1  or  7200  words.  The  chances  are  50  to 
50  that  this  subject's  actual  vocabulary  lies  within  the 
range  of  7200  plus  or  minus  360;  i.e.,  between  6840  and 
7560.  The  chances  are  22  to  1  that  the  total  vocab- 
ulary as  calculated  from  the  score  in  the  vocabulary 
test  will  not  be  found  to  deviate  from  the  true  vocab- 
ulary by  more  than  1000  words. 

Group  tests.  Above  the  third  grade  the  prelimi- 
nary sifting  and  classification  can  be  done  most  expe- 
ditiously  by  means  of  some  of  the  recently  devised 
group  tests.  These  can  be  given  simultaneously  to 
all  the  pupils  of  a  class  in  fifty  to  sixty  minutes. 
Some  of  the  group  tests  have  the  great  advantage 
that  they  require  no  extended  training  either  for  giv- 
ing or  scoring.  The  scoring  is  done  mechanically  by 
means  of  stencils,  and  requires  about  ten  minutes  per 
pupil.  The  tests  can  be  given  as  a  regular  school 
exercise,  and  the  scoring  can  be  done  at  the  teacher's 
convenience  out  of  school  hours.2 

While  no  scale  has  been  devised  for  group  testing 

1  The  Stanford  vocabulary  list  was  constructed  by  selecting  every 
180th  word  in  a  dictionary  containing  18,000  words. 

2  The  best  scale  for  group  testing  available  at  present  is  that 
of  Arthur  S.  Otis,  published  by  the  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers, 
New  York.   Another,  which  will  have  a  more  extensive  experimental 
basis,  is  being  prepared  by  an  investigating  board  composed  of  M.  E. 
Haggerty,  L.  M.  Terman,  E.  L.  Thorndike,  G.  M.  Whipple,  and 
R.  M.  Yerkes.     It  should  be  ready  for  use  early  in  1920.     The  in- 
vestigation was  made  possible  by  an  appropriation  of  $25,000  by 
the  General  Education  Board  of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation. 

For  blanks  or  information  address  the  Section  of  Psychology, 
National  Research  Council,  Washington,  D.C. 


THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  313 

which  yields  as  dependable  results  as  the  Binet 
method,  the  group  tests  are  deserving  of  wide  vogue. 
There  should  be  no  rivalry  between  the  group  method 
and  the  individual  method  of  testing,  as  each  supple- 
ments the  other.  All  the  pupils  above  the  third  or 
fourth  grade  should  be  given  a  group  test  annually. 
We  may  confidently  expect  this  practice  to  become 
common  in  the  no  distant  future.  The  individual 
method  will  find  its  field  in  the  first  three  grades, 
and  in  the  more  thorough  examination  of  children  in 
the  upper  grades  who  make  exceptional  scores  in  the 
group  test. 


INDEX 


Acceleration,  and  retardation,  72. 

Adenoids,  151,  186. 

Age,  promotion  by,  27,  28,  97, 
158;  influence  on  ability  to  do 
school  work,  48,  49;  of  learning 
to  read,  178;  of  walking  and 
talking,  187,  188. 

Allen,  Richard  D.,  on  Binet  tests, 
303,  304. 

Ay  res,  Leonard  P.,  Laggards  in 
our  Schools,  111. 

Backward  children,  schools  for, 
42,  43;  vocational  training  for, 
132. 

Berry,  Charles  Scott,  114. 

Binet,  Alfred,  1,  6. 

Binet-Simon  Intelligence  Scale, 
the,  2,  5,  12,  25;  preparation 
needed  for  use  of,  292-302.  See 
also  Stanford- Binet  scale. 

Business  men,  intelligence  tests 
of,  278,  279. 

Campbell,  Dr.  Macfie,  125. 

Class  sectioning,  266. 

College  students,  intelligence  tests 

of,  279-281. 
Comparison,    need    of    absolute 

standard  of,  70. 

Compensation,  the  theory  of,  57. 
Cummings,  Blanche,  144,  233. 
Cuneo,  Irene,  tests  made  by,  30, 

32,  34,  36,  37,  50,  51,  146. 
Curriculum,  29,  32,  90. 

Dickson,  Virgil  E.,  42,  119,  296; 
tests  made  by,  43,  44,  47,  48, 
52,  55,  56,  57;  predicts  as  to 
school  progress,  61,  62;  on  cause 
of  retardation,  63,  64;  striking 
result  of  a  mental  test  by,  289, 
290. 

Discrepancies  between  mental 
age  and  school  performance,97- 


99;  tests  showing  effect  of  un- 
usual application,  99;  of  child's 
personality,  100,  101;  of  timid- 
ity and  lack  of  self-confidence, 
102;  of  mental  inertia,  102, 103; 
of  emotional  or  nervous  tenden- 
cies, 103,  104;  of  "home  spoil- 
ing," 104,  105;  of  physical  de- 
fects, 105;  of  love  affairs  and 
day  dreaming,  105,  106. 
Downey,  Dr.  June  E.,  280. 

Educational  guidance,  268,  286- 
288. 

Educational  lock-step,  74. 

Elimination,  high-school,  86-89. 

Environment,  effect  of,  10-15. 

Epileptics,  150. 

Express  company  employees,  in- 
telligence tests  of,  275,  276. 

Failures,  social  and  industrial,  in- 
telligence tests  of,  282-286. 

Feeble-minded,  school  children, 
119;  progress  of,  121;  number 
of  individuals  to  be  classed  as, 
124,  127;  definition  of,  127; 
not  curable,  128;  grade  expect- 
ancy of,  129-131;  a  burden, 
132;  among  delinquents,  283, 
284. 

Fifth  grade,  individual  differ- 
ences in,  66-74. 

Finger  prints,  5. 

Firemen  of  San  Jose,  intelligence 
tests  of,  271-274. 

First  grade,  individual  differences 
in,  42-65;  critical  importance 
of,  42;  mental-age  differences, 
44;  mental  age  necessary  for, 
45-47;  sex  differences,  55;  racial 
and  social  differences,  55,  56; 
feasibility  of  testing  first-grade 
children,  64,  65. 

Flanders,  J.  K..  275,  276. 


316 


INDEX 


Galton,  Frances,  1,  259. 
Gaylor,  G.  W.,  114. 
Goddard,  Dr.  H.  H.,  125. 
Group  tests,  312,  313. 
Gulick,  Dr.,  115. 
Gypsy,  Mary,  case  of,  13. 

Haggerty,  M.  E.,  312. 

Health,  rating  on,  185-187. 

Heredity,  188-190.  See  also  case 
studies  of  superior  children, 
194-267. 

High  School,  individual  differ- 
ences in  first  year  of,  75-91; 
mental-age  differences  in,  77- 
79;  mental  age  and  school 
marks  in,  79,  80. 

Hoboes,  intelligence  tests  of,  282- 
286. 

Hocking,  Adeline,  187. 

Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  268. 

Hollingworth,  Leta  S.,  259. 

Home  reading,  180,  181. 

Hubbard,  Margaret  Hopwood, 
165,  166,  168. 

Hubbard,  O.  S.,  66,  175. 

Individual  differences,  amount 
and  significance  of,  17-29; 
causes  of,  in  school  progress, 
21;  among  kindergarten  chil- 
dren, 30-41;  in  the  first  grade, 
42-65;  in  the  fifth  grade,  66-74; 
in  first  year  of  high  school,  75- 
91. 

Intelligence,  principles  of  test- 
ing, 1-15;  and  other  traits,  56- 
61;  relation  to  elimination,  86. 

Intelligence  quotient,  the,  7;  a 
basis  for  prediction,  8-10,  70, 
157;  effect  of  environment 
on,  10-15;  distribution  of,  in 
Kindergarten,  32,  33;  in  first 
grade,  50;  in  High-School  pu- 
pils, 80;  constancy  of.  138,  142, 
146;  of  superior  children,  170. 

Intelligence  tests  in  vocational 
and  educational  guidance,  268- 
290. 

Irwin,  May;  265. 


Johnson,  Glenn  R.,  282. 

Key,  Dr.  Wilhelmine,  125. 

Kindergarten,  difference  among 
children  in,  30-41;  sex  differ- 
ences, 34;  girls  superior  to  boys, 
35,  36;  special  need  of  tests  in, 
37-39;  demand  upon  intelli- 
gence, 39-41. 

King,  Irving,  88. 

Kohs,  S.  C.,  309. 

Laggards,  school,  111-134. 
Learning  to  read,  age  of,  178. 
Lowery,  Howard,  119. 
Lurton,  F.  E.,  113. 

Mead,  C.  D.,  188. 

Mental  age,  meaning  of,  5,  6;  a 
basis  for  school  grading,  7, 107; 
overlapping  in  grades,  25-27, 
30-32;  differences  in  first 
grade,  44-47;  differences  in 
High-School  pupils,  77;  and 
school  marks,  79,  80,  97; 
standard  for  grading,  92-110; 
normal  age  for  different  grades, 
93-95;  discrepancies  with 
school  performance,  97-106; 
objections  to  grading  superior 
children  by,  262. 

Mental  deficiency,  criteria  of, 
126. 

Mental  growth,  curves  of,  153- 
157. 

Mental  test,  significance  of,  3,  4; 
usefulness  of,  109;  of  school 
laggards,  111-134;  sugges- 
tions for  use  of,  291-313. 

Missing  link,  the,  4. 

Montessori,  Madame,  40. 

Moral  traits,  184,  185. 

Morton,  W.  H.  S.,  113. 

Only  children,  177,  178,  231. 
Opportunity  classes  for  superior 

children,  263-266. 
Otis,  Arthur  S.,  308,  312. 
Otis  Group  Scale,  the,  15,  75. 
Over-age  children,   problem  of, 


INDEX 


317 


28,  29,  134;  laggards  among, 
111,  112,  116;  over-promotion 
among,  130,  131;  special 
classes  for,  131,  132. 

Physical  traits,  135-188. 

Play  and  recreation,  179. 

Poems  and  fables  by  seven-year- 
old  boy,  204,  205;  by  boy  of 
nine,  244. 

Policeman  of  San  Jose,  intelli- 
gence tests  of,  271-274. 

Precocity,  not  pathological,  165. 

Prediction,  regarding  school 
progress,  36,  61-63,  70;  the 
I  Qas  a  basis  for,  135-164;  the 
essence  of  science,  135;  limita- 
tions of,  137,  148. 

Preston,  Isabel,  92,  tests  made 
by,  98-106;  107,  108. 

Proctor,  W.  M.,  studies  first 
year  High-School  pupils,  75, 
76  n. 

Promotion,  by  age,  27,  28,  97, 
158;  of  over-age  children,  130, 
131. 

Race,  Henrietta,  265. 

Recreation,  179,  180. 

Retardation,  prevention  of,  21, 
28;  causes  of,  24,  25,  27,  63, 
64;  and  acceleration,  72;  chief 
cause  of,  73,  74,  116,  117; 
among  school  laggards,  112;  in 
rural  schools,  114;  supposed 
causes  of,  114-116. 

Salesgirls,   intelligence   tests  of, 

277,  278. 
School  grading,  failure  of,  25,  27 ; 

a  model  study  of,  43-48. 
School  success,  sources  of  error 

in  judging,  95. 
Sex  differences,  at  kindergarten 

age,  34-36;  in  first  grade,  55. 
Skipping  grades,  177. 
Social  status,  188. 
Specht,  Louise  F.,  265. 
Special  class,  the,  131. 


Standard  of  comparison,  neces- 
sity of,  70,  71. 

Standardization  of  tests,  3,  4,  5, 
50  n. 

Stanford-Binet  scale,  1,  2,  5,  10, 
25,  50,  66,  75,  76,  98,  107,  167, 
168;  test  of  fable  interpreta- 
tion, 205,  208;  Record  Book- 
let for  use  with,  293,  294;  ab- 
breviations of,  306-311. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  87,  112. 

Street-car  employees,  intelli- 
gence tests  of,  277,  278. 

Strong,  Dr.,  Case  of  Margaret, 
108-110. 

Superior  children,  some  facts 
about,  165-193;  educational 
neglect  of,  165;  case  studies  of, 
194-267;  indications  of,  260, 
261;  objections  to  grading  by 
mental  age,  262;  opportunity 
classes  for,  263-266. 

Talent,    conservation    of,    288- 

290. 

Talking,  age  of,  187,  188. 
Taussig's  division  of  occupation, 

56. 
Terman,  Lewis  M.,  119,  134,  146, 

187,  195,  203,  209,  259,  271, 

291,  297,  309. 
Thorndike,    E.    L.,    Educational 

Psychology,  17  n. 
Trait  ratings,  181-184. 

Vocabulary  test,  308-312. 

Vocational  guidance,  intelligence 
tests  in,  268-290;  and  educa- 
tional guidance  inseparable, 
268;  limitations  of,  269,  270. 

Vocational  training,  for  back- 
ward children,  132. 

Walking,  age  of,  187,  188. 
Waugh,  C.  W.,  277. 
Whipple,  G.  M.,  266,  312. 
Williams,  Dr.  J.  H.,  144. 

Yerkes,  R.  M.,  312. 


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